Part 1: Physiology (Digestion, Muscle, Hormones & Glands) Flashcards
Production of Melatonin (steps)
Tryptophan -> Serotonin -> Melatonin
What is the extension of the hypothalamus forming the post pituitary called?
Neuropophysis
Embryology of the anterior pituitary
Rathke’s pouch / ectoderm
How does the anterior pituitary connect to the hypothalamus?
Hypophyseal portal system (through blood)
The ant. And post. Pituitary glands are located in the
Sella turica
The anterior pituitary involves what hormones? (7)
1) ACTH: adrenocorticotropin hormone
2) FSH: follicle stimulating hormone
3) GH: growth hormone
4) LH: luteinizing hormone
5) MSH: melanocyte stimulating hormone
6) Prolactin
7) TSH: thyroid stimulating hormone
Embryology of the posterior pituitary
Diencephalon / derived from neuroectoderm
How does the posterior pituitary connect to the hypothalamus?
Infundibulum (neural stalk)
What hormones are involved with the posterior pituitary? (2)
1) ADH/vasopressin
2) Oxytocin
ADH deficiency =
Diabetes Insipidus
Too much ADH =
Conn’s Syndrome
What is the role of oxytocin?
Uterus contraction & milk let down
Target Organ of ACTH
Adrenal Cortex; Zona Fasciculata
Target Organ of FSH
Ovary & Testes
Target Organ of Growth hormone
All tissue except cartilage
Target Organ of Luteinizing hormone
Ovary & Testes
Target Organ of Melanocyte Stimulating hormone
Melanocytes
Target Organ of Prolactin
Mammaries
Target Organ of TSH
Thyroid follicular cells
Effects of ACTH
1) Gluconeogenesis when stressed/fasting
2) Shuts down immune system
Effects of FSH
Females: releases follicle & estrogen
Males: stimulates spermotogenesis
FSH must be
Inhibited by inhibin
Inhibin is made in… male vs female
Female: Corpus Leuteum
Male: Sertoli cells
Effects of Growth hormone
1) Burns FAT (not carbs)
2) Somatostatin release triggered by hypothalamus
____________ from the liver mediates growth hormone for cartilage
Somatomedin
Effects of Luteinizing hormone male vs female
Female: Ovulation & forms corpus leuteum to make progesterone
Male: Testosterone in Leydig cells
Effects of Melanocyte stimulating hormone
Produce melanin in basement layer of epidermis
Effects of Prolactin
Makes milk
Prolactin must be actively inhibited by
Dopamine
Effects of TSH
Maintains Basal metabolic Rate
Is T3 or T4 more powerful?
T3, faster acting but less abundant
When levels are too high: ACTH
Cushing’s
Characteristics of Cushing’s disease
1) moon face
2) buffalo humo
3) pendulous abdomen
4) purple straie
When levels are too high: FSH
Multiple OOcytes
When levels are too high: Growth hormone
Before growth centers close: Gigantism
After growth centers close: Acromegaly
When levels are too high: Melanocyte stimulating hormone
Hyper-pigmentation
When levels are too high: Prolactin
Too much milk
When levels are too high: TSH
Hyperthyroidism MC Grave’s
Characteristics of Grave’s disease
1) Thin bulging eyes
2) Exophthalmoses
3) heat intolerance
Deficiency of ACTH
Addison’s
Characteristics of Addison’s disease
1) low BP
2) Hyper-pigmented face & mouth
Deficiency of FSH
Infertility
Deficiency of Growth hormone
Dwarfism
Deficiency of Luteinizing hormone
Degenerates corpus leuteum
Deficiency of MSH
Albinism
Deficiency of Prolactin
Too little milk
Deficiency of TSH
Myxedema = Hypothyroidism MC Hashimotos
What type of hypothyroidism is seen in children?
Cretinism
Calcium controls ______ _______ keeping them _________.
Sodium gates; closed
If low calcium… nerves ___________ producing _________.
Depolarize; tetany
The hearts sodium channels are _______- which prevents tetany by creating ___________
Slow; plateaus (long absolute refractory period
What 2 hormones are mainly concerned with keeping a calcium balance?
Calcitonin & Parathyroid hormone
PTH is produced by
Parathyroid glands
Calcitonin is produced by
Parafollicular cells of thyroid
What is the effect of PTH?
1) Takes Calcium out of bone and into blood
2) Decreases blood Phosphorus
What is the effect of Calcitonin?
1) Pulls Calcium out of blood & puts it in bone
2) Increases blood Phosphorus
Excess PTH leads to… (6)
1) Hyperparathyroidism
2) Kidney stones
3) Osteopenia
4) Browns Tumor
5) jersey spine
6) Salt & pepper skull
Excess Calcitonin leads to…
Tetany
Example of Tetany:
Chvostek’s sign
The adrenal cortex is derived from
Mesoderm
The adrenal medulla is derived from
Neural crest cells
Zona Glomerulosa = _____________ = _____________ = _______________
Aldosterone; Mineral corticoid; Salt
Zona Fasciculata = _____________ = _____________ = _______________
Cortisol; Glucocorticoid; Sugar
Zona Reticularis = _____________ = _____________ = _______________
Sex hormones; Androgens; Sex
What cells secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine?
Chromaffin Cells
Nor epinephrine and epinephrine break..
Glycogen into glucose to raise blood sugar
Norepinephrine and epinephrine are secreted from the adrenal
Medulla
Tumor of the Adrenal Medulla:
Pheochromocytoma (gray cell tumor)
Signs & symptoms of a gray cell tumor of the adrenal medulla
Episodic hypertension
Estrogen builds in what phase?
proliferative
What happens during the proliferative phase?
Builds endometrial lining
What hormone is involved in the secretory phase of the ovaries?
Progesterone
Progesterone is a part of the ___________ phase and does what?
Secretory; nourishes embryo
In the menstrual cycle, FSH does 2 major things:
1) picks primary follicle (haploid cell)
2) releases estrogen
In the menstrual cycle, Estrogen does 2 molar things:
1) Thickens endometrial lining/blood -> increases body temp
2) Peaks on the 14th day to release LH
In the menstrual cycle, LH does 2 major things
1) ovulation
2) forms corpus leuteum
In the menstrual cycle, the Corpus Leuteum does 2 major things:
1) makes progesterone
2) makes inhibin stopping FSH
2 potential fates of the Corpus Leuteum include:
1) Dies (corpus albicans)
2) makes progesterone in presence of HCG
HCG (human chorionicgonadotropin) is made by __________ and stimulates ___________ to make ____________.
Placenta; Corpus Leuteum; progesterone
Thick layer vs. Outside layer of OOcytes are called
Thick: corona granular
Outside: corona radiata
Spermatogenesis makes ___________ from _____________
Haploid cells; meiosis
What hormone starts spermatogenesis?
FSH
What hormone releases testosterone from Leydig cells?
LH
What hormone matures sperm:
Testosterone
Sperm is made in what structure?
Somniferous tubules
Sperm matures in what structure?
Epidydimis
Sperm is stored in the
Vas deferans
What shut off spermatogenesis?
Inhibin
What cells make inhibin in the male reproductive system?
Sertoli cells
What muscle raises the testes?
Cremaster
What fascia wrinkles the scrotum?
Dartos fascia
What is Cryptorchism?
Failure of testes to descend (precancerous)
In the mouth, what starts the breakdown of starch? Fat?
Starch: salivary amylase
Fat: Sublingual Lipase
Digestion of protein starts where?
Stomach
Gastric glands give rise to
Parietal cells & Chief cells
Chief (peptic) cells produce
Pepsinogen
Pepsinogen is converted by _____ into _______ for _________ digestion.
HCL; Pepsin; protein
Parietal (oxyntic) cells make (2) things:
1) HCL
2) Intrinsic factor
Intrinsic factor does what?
B12 absorption in the terminal ileum
Pyloric glands give rise to ______________ which produce ___________
Gastric cells; gastrin
Effect of gastrin
Increases gastric secretions, mucous and motility
What are Brunner’s glands and where are they located?
Mucous secreting glands in the duodenum (buffers chyme)
Secretin triggers what release from the pancreas?
1) Bicarbonate
2) water
Choleccystokinin produces…
Most of the pancreatic enzymes in response to polypeptides (proteins) in the stomach
Cholescystokinin cause production of: (3)
1) pancreatic amylase (starch)
2) pancreatic lipase (fat)
3) trypsinogen (protein)
Cholecystolinin closes __________ in response to ________
Pyloric sphincter; fats
Cholecystolinin _________ gastrin in the stomach
Inhibits
Cholecystolinin cause gallbladder to…
Release bile which increases surface area for fats to be acted on
Bile creates ______ that carry fat to lacteal glands for absorption
Micelles
Chylomicrons are the digested form of
Fats
Enterokinase converts ___________ to ____________ to help digest ________
Trypsinogen, trypsin, protein
Once trypsin is made what does it do?
Activates all other proteolytic enzymes including:
1) Chymotrypsinogen
2) proteolastase
3) carboxypolypeptidase
The crypts of Lieberkuhn release (2)
1) aminopolypeptidase & dipeptidase
Aminopolypeptidase & Dipeptidase breakdown
Poly and dipeptides into amino acids
What cells produce mucous?
Goblet cells
What does pancreatic amylase breakdown?
Poly and disaccharides
Pancreatic amylase is made in the
Small intestine
Lactase breaks down lactose into…
Glucose + Galactose
Sucrose breaks down sucrose into…
Glucose + fructose
Maltase breaks down maltose into…
Glucose + glucose
What is the mineral of B12?
Cobalt
Decreased intrinsic factor leads to (4)
1) pernicious anemia
2) macrocytic anemia
3) normochromic anemia
4) megaloblastic anemia
If decreased intrinsic factor is left untreated what disease can take over?
Posterolateral Sclerosis of the spinal cord (aka combined systems disease)
What can stop absorption of B12?
Fish tapeworm in the ileum
1 cause of peristalsis =
Gut distention
Pancreatic enzymes are made in the ______________ and stored in the _____________
Small intestine; pancreas
Right and left lobes of the liver are separated by what ligament
Falciform
The round ligament is a remnant of
The umbilical vein
The triangular ligaments of the liver are
Superior/lateral
The __________ ligament of the liver attaches to the diaphragm
Coronary
Path from liver to the pancreas (6 steps)
R & L Hepatic ducts -> common hepatic duct -> Cystic duct from Gallbladder joins -> Common bile duct -> Pancreatic Duct joins -> empties into 2nd part of duodenum at the major duodenal pilla
The pancreatic head contacts
2nd segment of descending duodenum
Uncinate process of the pancreas location:
Tongue-like projection inferior to the head
Pancreatic body contacts th
Stomach & L. Kidney
Pancreatic tail contacts
Spleen
What artery is the pancreas mainly supplied by?
Splenic artery
In the spleen what is red pulp and white pulp?
Red: RBC
White: WBC
What are the 4 possibilities for Edema?
1) Increased venous pressure = Increased hydrostatic pressure
2) Decreased protein in the blood = decreased oncotic/osmotic pressure
3) Myxedema = hypothyroidism/cretinism
4) Anaphylaxis = Type 1 Hypersensitivity reaction = histamine release
Term for generalized edema
Anasarca
Nephrotic Syndrome: “_____________” = ____________ ______________ ______________
Pre-Eclampsia; Hypertension, Edema, Proteinuria
The portal vein =
Superior mesenteric vein & Splenic (lineal) vein
The portal vin empties into the
Liver
Hepatic vein drains into the
Inferior vena cava
3 hormones involve with increased eating & what they do
Neuropeptide Y: increases appetite
Ghrelin: promotes appetite
Adiponectin: helps insulin bring glucose into cells
Where do the following hormones come from?
1) Neuropeptide Y
2) Ghrelin
3) Adiponectin
1) hypothalamus
2) stomach
3) fat cells
The enterogastric reflex is an _______________ reflex
Inhibitory
Hormones involved in decreased eating & what they do:
1) Leptin: shuts off appetite in hypothalamus
2) Peptide YY: when eaten enough
3) Somatostatin: (several functions) (other slide)
4) Serotonin: Satiation
Where do the following hormones come from?
1) Leptin
2) Peptide YY
3) Somatostatin
4) Serotonin
1) fat cells
2) intestines
3) delta cells of pancreas
4) argentaffin cells from stomach
3 functions of somatostatin:
[shuts off digestion by]:
1) Inhibits insulin & glucagons
2) inhibits gastrin
3) inhibits Renin
Beta cells = __________ and the __________ blood sugar
Insulin; Lower
Alpha cells = __________ and they __________ blood sugar
Glucagon; raise
What is the functional unit of a muscle
Alpha motor neuron + all muscle fibers it innervates
What is the functional unit of a muscle fiber?
Sarcomere
A Band characteristics (3)
1) Anisonotropic
2) Myosin (thick) & Actin (thin)
3) remains the same with contraction
Characteristics of I Band: (3)
1) Isotrophic
2) Actin (thin)
3) Shortens with contraction
Characteristics of H band: (2)
1) Myosin (thick)
2) disappears with with contraction
Endomysium =
Perimysium =
Epmysium =
Covering of a muscle fiber
Covering of a muscle fascicle
Covering of entire muscle
STUDY SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION
In smooth muscle contraction, actin attaches to
Dense bodies
In smooth muscle contraction, calcium binds with
Calmodulin
There is no ___________ in smooth muscle
Troponin
Smooth muscle relaxation uses…
Myosin hosphatase/calcium pump to break the contraction
(#1) Skeletal Muscle vs. (#2) Smooth Muscle: Activation
1) faster
2) slower
(#1) Skeletal Muscle vs. (#2) Smooth Muscle: Strength
1) weaker
2) stronger
(#1) Skeletal Muscle vs. (#2) Smooth Muscle: energy required to sustain contraction
1) More
2) Less
(#1) Skeletal Muscle vs. (#2) Smooth Muscle: calcium channels
1) less involved
2) more involved
(#1) Skeletal Muscle vs. (#2) Smooth Muscle: sodium channels
1) more involved
2) less involved
(#1) Skeletal Muscle vs. (#2) Smooth Muscle: Relaxation
1) Acetylcholine-esterase
2) Myosin phosphotase & calcium pump
Slow Twitch fiber characteristics: (7)
1) endurance
2) red color due to myoglobin
3) aerobic glycolysis
4) more mitochondria
5) less glycolysis enzymes
6) postural muscles
7) fight gravity
Fast twitch fibers characteristics (7)
1) explosive power
2) white, lack of myoglobin
3) anaerobic glycolysis
4) less mitochondria
5) more glycolysis enzymes
6) Sport muscles; fatigable
7) Fight or Flee
1 degree muscle spindle receptors are stimulated by
Nuclear chain and/or nuclear bag
2 degree muscle spindle receptors are stimulated by
Nuclear chain only
Gamma motor neuron = _____________ & _____________ (tone)
Cerebellum; intrafusal
Alpha motor neuron = ____________ & ____________
Pre-central Gyrus of cortex; Extrafusal
Definition of convection
Air waves cool off object
Definition of radiation heat transfer
How you normally give off heat
Passive diffusion follows
Concentration gradient
Facilitated diffusion uses (3)
1) A carrier protein
2) Voltage gates
3) Ligand gating (bind chemical w/ protein)
Primary active transport requires
ATP
Secondary active transport mechanism:
High Sodium concentration gradient carries molecules into cell
Excitatory molecules in the CNS: (5)
1) AcH
2) Nor/epinephrine
3) glutamate
4) dopamine
5) Serotonin
Inhibitory molecules in the CNS: (2)
1) Glycine (spine)
2) GABA (brain)
The neuromuscular junction uses _____ to transmit impulses
AcH
The autonomic nervous system uses ________ & _________ to transmit impulses:
AcH & Norepinephrine
AcH activates what 2 receptors?
Muscanaric & Nicotinic
Muscanaric receptors are the…
Effector cells fo the parasympathetic
Nictinic receptors are the…
Skeletal muscle fibers including pre-ganglion is sympathetic and parasympathetic
