Paper 2 Review Flashcards
pro-social behavior
behavior that benefits another person or has positive social consequences
altruism
helping a person for no reward, and even at some cost to oneself
Prisoner’s Dilemma Study date
Axelrod and Hamilton, 1981
Prisoner’s Dilemma Study method
two individuals play a game where if they both do not confess they are rewarded. If they both cooperate, then neither get a big payoff. But if only one confesses, then they get more than the other person
Prisoner’s Dilemma Study findings
when players play 1 round, they are more likely to cooperate to increase their own survival. But when multiple rounds are played, they eventually respond by mimicking their opponent’s last move
Prisoner’s Dilemma Study conclusion
they may mimic the last move because they learn that their behavior will be reciprocated, i.e. they are nice to gain something (pro-social)
empathy altruism
when people see someone suffering they experience 1 of 2 emotions:
- personal distress: anxiety or fear, which leads to egoistic helping
- empathy concerns: sympathy or compassion, which leads to altruism
egoistic helping
weighing the costs and benefits of helping (pro-social behavior)
Carol Study date
Batson, 1981
Carol Study method
students listened to an interview of a student named Carol who had broken her leg in a car accident and needed the class notes. Some groups were told to focus on Carol’s feelings (empathy) and within those groups people were told that Carol would return to class, while others were told she wouldn’t (cost)
Carol Study findings
high empathy groups helped no matter the cost. low empathy groups only helped if cost of not helping was high
Carol Study conclusion
confirms that behavior based on empathy is unselfish, i.e. altruistic
Evolutionary (biological) explanations for altruism
reciprocal altruism theory: based on the idea that it may be beneficial to an animal’s survival to behave altruistically if there is an expectation that the favor will be returned in the future
Prisoner’s Dilemma Study evaluation
it is questionable whether animal behavior can be generalized to humans, specifically because humans are influenced by culture and conscious thought; does not explain altruistic acts that do not benefit our kin or occur without expectations of reciprocity
psychological explanations for altruism
empathy altruism
Carol Study evaluation
research supports this model; only short term altruism has been tested; personality factors have not been taken into account; difficult to measure levels of empathy; does not explain if empathy is biological based or learned
Cross Cultural Pen study date
Levine
Cross Cultural Pen study aim
to determine how many passing pedestrians would help a neatly dressed college age male pick up his dropped pen
Cross Cultural Pen study methods
the experimenter would reach into his pocket while walking and “accidentally” drop his pen
Cross Cultural Pen study findings
there were definite differences between cultures; worldwide, Latin American cities were the most helpful
Cross Cultural Children study date
Graves and Graves, 1985
Cross Cultural Children study
helping was least likely in communities where children had completed school and didn’t have many chores; caring for younger children provides an opportunity for pro-social behavior for modeling and social norms
culture on pro-social behavior
research supports the idea that culture plays a role in one’s likelihood to help in some situations
social identity theory
personal identity involves personal accomplishments; we are more likely to help people of our own ethnic groups
Asian v. American culture study date
Bond and Leung, 1988
Asian v. American Culture study
Chinese and Japanese offered more help to those in their in-groups, but US people offered more help to those in out-groups
bystanderism
the phenomenon that an individual is less likely to help in an emergency situation when positive and passive bystanders are present
factors that influence helping
- whether others offer assistance
- whether others are present
- ambiguity
- religious devotion
- social norms
diffusion of responsibility
people are less likely to help when they believe others are present because it reduces the psychological cost (guilt or stress) of not helping
Bystanderism experiment date
Darley and Latane, 1968
Bystanderism experiment method
student participants were interviewed over sitcom. some where told there were 5 other people, some 2 and some 1. Then someone in the group had a seizure and it was observed whether people helped
Bystanderism experiment findings
85% rushed to help when they thought they were the only person; 31% got up when they thought there were others in the group
Bystanderism experiment problems
many thought it was fake because the victim couldn’t be seen; all participants were psych students; ethical concerns of participant stress
pluralistic ignorance
if the situation is ambiguous and other people aren’t reacting to what seems to be an emergency, then others are less likely to help
arousal cost reward model
in emergency and non-emergency situations we are motivated to help people as a way of reducing unpleasant feelings such as disgust, fear and anxiety, which can all be increased by a person’s proximity to the emergency, empathy and the amount of time an emergency continues for
arousal cost reward model costs and rewards
cost of helping: effort, embarrassment, possible physical harm
cost of not helping: self blame and perceived censure from others
reward for helping: praise from self, onlookers and victim
reward for not helping: getting on with one’s own business, not incurring possible costs of helping
Helping Behavior in NY Subway method
participants were travelers who were opportunity sampled between 11-3. While on a nonstop journey they witnessed either a man with a cane who appeared ill falling to the floor or a man who smelled of alcohol and appeared drunk falling to the floor
Helping Behavior in NY Subway findings
100% of people offered to help within 5 seconds for scenario 1; 81% of people offered to help within 109 seconds
Helping Behavior in NY Subway and arousal cost reward model
supports arousal cost reward model because helping a drunk has greater perceived costs; no one blames someone for not helping a drunk because drunk is perceived as partly responsible for their own victimization
Helping Behavior in NY Subway evaluation
high ecological validity; low amount of control; lots of detailed data collected
stressors
stimuli that we appraise as threatening or challenging–is cumulative and can add up
type of stressor: frustration
when the pursuit of some goal is thwarted
type of stressor: conflict
when 2 or more incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses compete for expression
type of stressor: life changes
even when changes are welcome they can cause stress because they require readjustment
type of stressor: pressure
expectations demand that one behave in a certain way
approach-approach conflict
choice between 2 attractive goals
avoidance-avoidance conflict
choice between 2 unattractive goals
approach-avoidance conflict
one choice has both attractive and unattractive aspects
transactional model of stress date
Lazarus and Folkman, 1975
transactional model of stress
stress involves a transaction between the individual and the external word and it assess the threat and the resources to deal with it
transactional model of stress components
primary appraisal: is the situation positive, negative or irrelevant?
secondary appraisal: consideration/evaluation of available coping strategies
coping strategies
problem-focused: change the situation
emotion-focused: maladaptive techniques, relaxation, talking to others
stress inoculation training (MBSR)
helps people reinterpret events as less stressful and put coping behaviors into action
stress inoculation training steps
- therapeutic alliance and psychoeducation: education, goal setting and identifying triggers
- application training: rehearsal and exposure
- application and follow through
stress inoculation training evaluation
takes time to implement; difficult to change learned routines and habits; treats the root of the stress
Tend and Befriend theory date
Taylor, 2002
Tend and Befriend theory
the male stress response if fight or flight and is triggered by testosterone; the female stress response id tend and befriend, triggered by oxytocin
physiological responses to stress
fight or flight, but most stressors require a more complex response
general adaptation syndrome date
Seyle, 1956
general adaptation syndrome
a model of the body’s stress response
general adaptation syndrome components
- alarm: first recognition of the threat–fight or flight stimulated
- resistance: after prolonged stress physical changes stabilize as coping efforts get underway (reverses alarm stage)
- exhaustion: the body’s resources are limited and panic decrease and resistance declines
general adaptation syndrome evaluation
explains extreme fatigue after long periods of stress; does not account for physiological factors involved
T-cell study date
Kilcott-Glaser, 1984
T-cell study
medical students on the first day of class v. the final day of class had lower t-cell counts
other physiological effects
high blood pressure, ulcers, migraines and gastrointestinal problems
cortisol
the release of cortisol (occurs when stressed) is bad for the heart and memory
psychological factors
appraisal is important
Optimism study date
Reed, 1999
Optimism study
those who were more optimistic survived longer with AIDS; outlook can’t cure a disease but it may prolong life
Personality can contribute to stress
Type A: strong, competitive, impatient, self-imposed stress, workaholics
Type B: relaxed, patient, easygoing, amenable, less hurried
other psychological responses
poor concentration, poor task performance, memory issues and impaired judgement
associated disorders
anxiety disorders, insomnia and nightmares: stress heightens likelihood of disorders–Stress Diathesis Model
burnout
physical and emotional exhaustion
