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PathY5 > Paeds Haem > Flashcards

Paeds Haem Flashcards

1
Q

What is an important cause of infant death?

A

Weight

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2
Q

What are common problems in LBW?

A

RDS
Retinopathy of Prematurity

Intraventricular haemorrhage
Patent Ductus Arteriosus
Nectrotizing entercolitis

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3
Q

What is NEC?

A

Inflammation of the bowel wall progressing to necrosis and perforation:

Bloody stools
Abdominal distension
Intramural air

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4
Q

When do nephrons develop?

A

Week 6
Start producign urine from wk 10
Full complement from week 36
2 yrs- maturity of GFR

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5
Q

What are the consequences of low GFR for surface area?

A

Slow excretion of a solute load

Limited amount of Na+ available for H+ exchange

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6
Q

What does a short proximal tubule mean?

A

lower reabsorptive capability than in the adult although:

reabsorption is usually adequate for the small filtered load

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7
Q

What is the problem with short LoH?

A

Loops of Henle/distal collecting ducts are short and juxtaglomerular giving:

a reduced concentrating ability with a maximum urine osmolality of 700 mmol/kg

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8
Q

Why is the distal tubule different in babies?

A

Distal tubule is relatively unresponsive to aldosterone:

leads to a persistent loss of sodium of c.1.8 mmol/kg/day

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9
Q

How is reduced potential potassium different in the neonates?

A

Reduced potential potassium excretion.
Serum ULN - adult 5.5 mmol/L
neonate 6.0 mmol/L

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10
Q

How is total body water different in neonates?

A

Adult- 60%
Term neonate- 75%
Prem neonate- 85%

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11
Q

How much does ECF fall by in the first week of life?

A

Term: 40 ml/kg
Prem: 100 ml/kg

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12
Q

What are the daily requirements for a healthy neonate?

A

Picture slide 13

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13
Q

How may electrolyte disturbances occur in renal problems?

A

High insensible water loss
High surface area
“ skin blood flow
“ metabolic/respiratory rate
“ transepidermal fluid loss

Drugs
Bicarbonate (for acidosis) High Na content
Antibiotics “
Caffeine/theophylline (for apnoea) Renal Na loss
Indomethacin (forPDA) Oliguria

Growth (or rather a lack of it)

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14
Q

When may hypernatraemia occur in the newborn?

A

Hypernatraemia after 2 weeks of age is uncommon and is usually associated with dehydration.
Salt poisoning and osmoregulatory dysfunction are rare but should be considered in cases of repeated hypernatraemia without obvious cause. Routine measurement of urea, creatinine and electrolytes on paired urine and plasma on admission may differentiate these rare causes.

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15
Q

What can cause hyponatraemia in a newborn?

A

CAH

Hyponatraemia/hyperkalaemia
with marked volume depletion
Ambiguous genitalia in female neonates
Growth acceleration (in child)

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16
Q

What causes neonatal hyperbilirubinaemia?

A

High level of synthesis (rbc
breakdown)
Low rate of transport into liver
Enhanced enterohepatic circulation

Unconjugated

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17
Q

What is hyperbilirubinaemia?

A

1g/l albumin binds 10 micromol/l bilirubin
Average albumin at term 34 g/l (lower in prem)
Free bilirubin crosses the blood brain barrier and causes Kernicterus (bilirubin encephalopathy)

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18
Q

What do the bilirubin phototherapy graphs look like?

A

Slide 19/20

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19
Q

What causes congenital hyperbilirubinaemia?

A 
Haemolytic disease (ABO, rhesus etc) 
G-6-PD deficiency 
Crigler-Najjar syndrome
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20
Q

What is prolonged jaundice?

A

Prolonged jaundice is jaundice that lasts for more than 14 days in term babies and more than 21 days in preterm babies.

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21
Q

What are the causes of prolonged jaundice?

A

Prenatal infection/ sepsis/hepatitis

Hypothyroidism

Breast milk jaundice

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22
Q

What is Conjugated hyperbilirubinaemia?

A

Conjugated/direct bilirubin >20 mmol/l is always pathological

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23
Q

What causes Conjugated hyperbilirubinaemia?

A

Biliary atresia, choledochal cyst

Ascending cholangitis in TPN (Related to lipid content)

Galactosaemia

Alpha 1 AT def

Tyrosinaemia 1

Peroxisomal disorders

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24
Q

What is biliary atresia/ choledochal cyst associated with?

A

1/17 000 UK
20% associated with cardiac malformations, polysplenia, sinus inversus
Early surgery essential

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25
Q

What are the inherited metabolic disorders causing Conjugated hyperbilirubinaemia?

A

Galactosaemia - urine reducing ` substances, - red cell Gal-1-PUT

alpha-1-AT def (ZZ) - alpha-1-AT

Tyrosinaemia 1 - plasma amino acids

Peroxisomal dis - very long chain fatty acid profile

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26
Q

What are the reference intervals for pre term, term and adult for calcium and phosphate?

A

Pre term- calcium 1.90-2.85, Phosphate 0.93-1.72

Term- calcium 2.10-2.95, Phosphate 0.95-1.70

Adult- calcium 2.15-2.65, Phosphate 0.80-1.40

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27
Q

What are the symptoms of osteopaenia of prematurity?

A

fraying, splaying and cupping of long bones

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28
Q

What is the biochemistry of osteopaenia?

A

Biochemistry of osteopenia
Calcium within reference range
Phosphate <1mmol/L
Alk phos >1200 U/l ( 10 x adult ULN)
Vitamin D rarely measured in neonate
Some evidence of low renal formation of 1,25 OHD
but most believe it is due to substrate deficiency

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29
Q

What is the treatment of hypocalcaemia in baby?

A

Phosphate / calcium supplements

(1 alpha calcidol)

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30
Q

What is Rickets?

A

Refers to osteopenia due to deficient activity of Vit D

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31
Q

What is the presentation of rickets?

A

Frontal bossing
Bowlegs/knock knees
Muscular hypotonia
Tetany / hypocalcaemic seizure
Hypocalcaemic cardiomyopathy
Beware transient hyperphosphatasaemia of infancy (benign). Very high ALP – distinguishable by electrophoresis

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32
Q

What are the genetic causes of rickets?

A

Pseudo vitamin D deficiency I
Defective renal hydroxylation

Pseudo vitamin D deficiency II
Receptor defect

Familial Hypophosphataemias
Low tubular maximum reabsorption of phosphate
Raised urine phosphoethanolamine

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33
Q

Why do diseases differ in children compared to adults?

A

The first encounter with a pathogenic micro-organism often occurs in childhood whereas adults often have some degree of immunity.
Children are more likely than adults to respond to infections with lymphocytosis
‘Reactive’ lymphocytes are also common because of the frequent encounters with new microbial antigens.

Inherited conditions, particularly the more severe ones, often present in childhood

The rapid growth of the child can predispose to deficiency of vitamins or minerals

34
Q

Which values vary in children?

A

Normal ranges for red cell and white cell variables differ radically from the adult

The type of haemoglobin present differs

The response to infection differs

35
Q

How are neonates different?

A

The neonate will have higher percentage of haemoglobin F than at any other time of life so disorders of beta globin genes are much less likely to be manifest
Enzyme levels in red cell also differ, e.g. glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) concentration is about 50% higher than in adults

  1. A higher Hb
  2. A lower WBC
  3. Smaller red blood cells
  4. The same percentage of haemoglobin F
36
Q

What are the causes of polycythaemia in an infant?

A

Twin-to-twin transfusion
Intrauterine hypoxia
Placental insufficiency

37
Q

What are the causes of anaemia in an infant?

A

Twin-to-twin transfusion
Fetal-to-maternal transfusion
Parvovirus infection (virus not cleared by immature immune system)
Haemorrhage from the cord or placenta

38
Q

What can damage a foetus/ neonate?

A

The fetus can be damaged by irradiation or by something that crosses from the mother into the infant circulation, e.g. drugs, chemicals or antibodies
Anticoagulant drugs can cause haemorrhage or fetal deformity
Antibodies can destroy red cells, white cell or platelets
The neonate can also be damaged by something that is absorbed from breast milk
For example, if a lactating woman eats fava beans her G6PD-deficient baby boy may suffer haemolysis

39
Q

Where can leukaemia development start?

A

In utero!

Congenital leukaemia is particularly common in Down syndrome
This specific type of neonatal leukaemia (also sometimes called transient abnormal myelopoiesis or TAM) differs greatly from leukaemia in older infants or children

40
Q

What is neonatal leukaemia in Down’s like?

A

The leukaemia is myeloid with major involvement of the megakaryocyte lineage
The most remarkable feature is that it usually remits spontaneously and relapse one to two years later occurs in only about a quarter of infants
There are analogies with other childhood tumours, e.g. neuroblastoma

41
Q

What is this?

A

Neonatal leukaemia in Down’s

42
Q

What is the difference between a thalassaemia and a haemoglobinopathy?

A

Thalassaemias (reduced synthesis) or haemoglobinopathies (synthesis of a structurally abnormal molecule)

“Haemoglobinopathy” may also be used to refer to any inherited disorder of globin chain synthesis

43
Q

Where are the different Hb chans present?

A

A α2β2 Late fetus, infant, child and adult

A2 α2δ2 Infant, child and adult

F α2γ2 Fetus and infant

44
Q

How does vascular obstruction occur in Sickle cell anaemia?

A

Red cells elongate to pass through capillary bed to post-capillary venule

More red cells become adherent to endothelium

Obstruction occurs

Sickle cells obstruct the venule and retrograde capillary obstruction occurs

45
Q

What does this show?

A

Sickle cells

46
Q

What mutations cause sickle cell disease? (trait, anaemia, sickle bthalassaemia, sickle HbC)

A

ββS — Sickle cell trait

βSβS—Sickle cell anaemia

βSβThal— Sickle cell/beta thalassaemia

βSβc—Sickle cell/haemoglobin C disease

47
Q

Why does SCA not present at birth?

A

Clinical features become manifest as gamma chain production and haemoglobin F synthesis decrease and betaS and haemoglobin S production increase

48
Q

How is SCA diagnosed at birth?

A

Guthrie spot

49
Q

Sickle cell anaemia in the infant and child differs from the same disease in the adult

Why is that?

A

The distribution of red bone marrow (susceptible to infarction) differs—the hand/foot syndrome

The infant still has a functioning spleen—splenic sequestration can occur

The infant has an immature immune system and has not developed immunity to pneumococcus or parvovirus

The infant or child is growing rapidly and has a greater need for folic acid

50
Q

What vaso occlusive diseases occur in the first decade of a SCA childs life?

A

Hand foot syndrome (baby)

Acute chest syndrome

Painful crises (most common)

Stroke

51
Q
A
52
Q

What is the impact of splenic sequestration?

A

Splenic sequestration is the acute pooling of a large percentage of circulating red cells in the spleen

The spleen enlarges acutely

The Hb falls acutely and death can occur

This doesn’t happen in older children and adults because recurrent infarction has left the spleen small and fibrotic

However, having a small and fibrotic spleen has other disadvantages

The spleen is an important part of the immune system

It is very important for filtering out bacteria and parasites

As the risk of splenic sequestration wanes the risk of hyposplenism waxes

53
Q

Why are infections bad in SCA babies?

A

Unless specific steps are taken to prevent it, pneumococcal infection is often fatal in babies with sickle cell disease

Infants and children with sickle cell disease initially have no immunity to parvovirus B19—their first exposure leads to pure red cell aplasia

54
Q

Why does folic acid matter more in a child with sickle cell disease than in a normal child or an adult?

A

Hyperplastic erythropoiesis requires folic acid

Growth spurts require folic acid

Red cell life span is shorter so anaemia can rapidly worsen

55
Q

So how do we manage sickle cell anaemia and other forms of sickle cell disease in the infant and child?

A

Accurate diagnosis

Educate parents

Vaccinate

Prescribe folic acid and penicillin

56
Q

What is beta thalassaemia?

A

Beta thalassaemia is a condition resulting from reduced synthesis of beta globin chain and therefore haemoglobin A

57
Q

At what age do you think it would first be manifest?

A

You might expect it to become apparent in the first 3‒6 months of life but it is detected on the Guthrie spot

58
Q

What is the genetic inheritence of beta thalassaemia?

A

Beta thalassaemia heterozygosity or trait is harmless but genetically important

Beta thalassaemia homozygosity causes a severe anaemia that, in the absence of blood transfusion, is fatal in the first few years of life

There are intermediate forms, which are genetically complex

59
Q

What are the forms of beta thalassaemia?

A

βthβ– Beta thalassaemia trait or heterozygosity

βthβth –Beta thalassaemia homozygosity (beta thalassaemia major)

60
Q

What are the clinical effects of poorly treated BTh major?

A

Anaemia (growth retardation, HF)

Erythropoietic drive (bone expansion, hepatosplenomegaly)

Iron overload (HF, gonadal failure)

61
Q

So how do we manage an infant/child with beta thalassaemia major?

A

Accurate diagnosis and family counselling

Blood transfusion

Monitoring for narrowing of cerebral vessels

Once iron overload starts to occur, chelation therapy (desferioxamine, deferiprone)

Consideration of the child as an individual and as part of a family

62
Q

What is haemolytic disease of the newborn cased by?

A

Transplacental passage of antibodies can cause haemolytic disease of the newborn

This is most often due to ABO or Rh antibodies

63
Q

What can Inherited haemolytic anaemias can be due to defects in?

A
  • Red cell membrane
  • Haemoglobin molecule
  • Red cell enzymes—glycolytic pathway
  • Red cell enzymes—pentose shunt
  • Not to mention other rare conditions that you really don’t want to hear about
64
Q

What are the principles of diagnosis of haemolytic anaemia?

A

Is there anaemia?

Is there evidence of increased red cell breakdown, e.g. jaundice, splenomegaly, increased unconjugated bilirubin?

Is there evidence of increased red cell production, e.g. increased reticulocyte count, bone expansion?

Are there abnormal red cells?

65
Q

What are the common inherited haemolytic diseases?

A

Red cell membrane defects

  • Hereditary spherocytosis
  • Hereditary elliptocytosis

Haemoglobin defects

•Sickle cell anaemia

Glycolytic pathway defects

•Pyruvate kinase deficiency

Pentose shunt defects

•G6PD deficiency

66
Q
  • 7-year-old Afro-Caribbean boy had abdominal pain and urinary tract symptoms and was given an anti-emetic by his G.P.
  • Three days later he was noted to have yellow eyes and was brought to the hospital
  • WBC 10.9 × 109/l, Hb 58 g/l, MCV 100 fl, platelet count 275 × 109/l

Diagnosis?

A

G6PD deficiency

67
Q

What advice do you give for G6PD deficiency?

A
  • Infections
  • Drugs
  • Naphthalene- Mothballs of this type now banned in the EU
  • Fava beans
68
Q

What are The two important acquired haemolytic anaemias in children?

A
  • Autoimmune haemolytic anaemia
  • Haemolytic uraemic syndrome
69
Q

What is Autoimmune haemolytic anaemia is characterized by?

A
  • Spherocytosis
  • Positive direct antiglobulin test (Coombs’ test)
70
Q

In HUS, what is the haemolysis?

A

The haemolysis is what is called a microangiopathic haemolytic anaemia

That means that the red cells are damaged in capillaries and are fragmented by the process

Small angular fragments and microspherocytes are formed

71
Q

Least rare defects of coagulation are…

A

Least rare defects

  • Haemophilia A
  • Haemophilia B
  • Von Willebrand disease
72
Q

What is the presentation of Haemophilia A/B?

A
  • Bleeding following circumcision
  • Haemarthroses when starting to walk
  • Bruises
  • Post-traumatic bleeding
73
Q

What is the management of iherited defects of coagulation?

A

Accurate diagnosis

Counselling of family

Treatment of bleeding episodes

Use of prophylactic coagulation factors

Consideration of the child as an individual and as a family member (home treatment, self-treatment, schooling)

74
Q

What is the Presentation of von Willebrand disease?

A
  • Mucosal bleeding
  • Bruises
  • Post-traumatic bleeding
75
Q

What is the inheritence pattern of haemophilia and VWd?

A

H- X linked

VWd- AutoD

76
Q

What is the treatment of VWd?

A

Lower purity factor VIII concentrates

77
Q

A 1-year-old boy presents with joint bleeding, Hb, WBC and platelet count are normal, aPTT is prolonged, PT is normal, bleeding time normal—most likely diagnosis?

A

1.Haemophilia A

78
Q

What is the presentation of ITP?

A

Petechiae

Bruises

Blood blisters in mouth

79
Q

How do you investigate?

A

History

Blood count and film

Bone marrow aspirate

80
Q

What is the treatment of ITP?

A

Observation

Corticosteroids

High dose intravenous immunoglobulin

Intravenous anti-Rh D (if Rh-positive)

81
Q

What are the acute leukaemias in children?

A

Acute leukaemia in children is mainly acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL)

However, acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) also occurs at all ages and below the age of a year it is more common than ALL

Clinical features are similar to those in adults

82
Q

What is the management of hyposplenism?

A
  • Appropriate vaccinations
  • Prophylactic penicillin
  • Advice to parents re other risks

–Malaria

–Dog bites

PathY5 (98 decks)

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