others Flashcards
Ragged Red fibers בשרירים נראים באיזו מהמחלות הבאות:
1. hypothiroidism
2. subacute necrotizing encephalopathy (leigh disease)
3. MERRF
4. Emery dreyfuss muscular dystrophy
5. Nemaline myopathy
- MERRF-myoclonic epilepsy with ragged red fibers: progressive myoclonic epilepsy with ataxia. DD – lafora body, unverricht-lundborg, baltic… myoclonus followed by progressive ataxia, myopathy mild, mitochondrial abnormalities cause deafness, mental decline, optic atrophy. Most cases familial with maternal inheritance.
קצת על המסיחים האחרים-
1. Hypothyroidism associated with polyneuropathy, myalgia, pseudomyotonia. No evidence of ragged fibres
- Leigh Disease: familial or sporadic mitochondrial disorder. May appear as child or later, rapid onset abrupt symptoms may be precipitated by febrle illness – acute/subacutenecrotisingencephalopmyelopathy.
In infants – loss of head control, hyopotonia, poor sucking, irritability, seizures and myoclonic jerks. If later presentation – ataxia, dysarthria, tonic spasms, respiratory disturbance, external opthalmoplegia, nystagmus, dystona, chorea, , peripheral nerve and autonomic involvement. Pathology – spongy necrosis, myelin degeneration, gliosis in thalami, midbrain, pons, medulla, SC. - Emery Dreifuss Muscular dystrophy – highly diverse group – most common X linked muscular dystrophy with muscle contractions. Process relatively benign. Primary gene defect – Emerin. Age of onset varies .weakness of upper arm and shoulder girdle and later pelvic girdle and distal muscles. Added contractures in flexors of elbow, extensors of neck and posteiror calf muscles with no hypertrophy. Mentally intact. Associated with severe cardiomyopathy. Course of myopathy benign though weakness and contractures may be severe. Close cardiac monitoring.
- Nemaline Body: similar presentation to central core but the muscles of the trunk and limbs and face are involved and are thin hypoplastic. Slender appearance asscoiated with cardiomyopathy, EMG myopathic. In adulthood may present with respiratory muscle involvement and monocolonal protein. AD inheritance. Rods seens underneath plasms membrane of muscle.
תשובה ד- HMSN 2= CMT 2
In CIDP, Paraneoplastic and Diabetic neuropathies – CSF elevated.
Porphyria – pg 1332 – CSF normal or slightly elevated
באיזה מהמצבים הבאים אין דקרמנט בגירוי 3 הרץ
א.ALS
ב. LEMS
ג. congenital myasthenia gravis
ד. polymiositis
ה. Poliomyelitis
Polymiositis
Decrement seen in MG – and may occur in polio, ALS. In LEMS - during slow stimulation.
בן 50 עם אירוע של מיוגלובינוריה חריפה וללא חום או שינוי בהכרה. מה מהבאים גורם אפשרי?
א. SSRI
ב. סטרואידים
ג. מסטינון
ד. אלטרוקסין
ה. סטטינים
ה. סטטינים
בן 35 אשר טופל בגיל 25 למחלת הודג’קין פיתח אירוע מוחי. הסיבה הסבירה לכך היא:
א. תופעה מאוחרת של טיפול כימותרפי
ב. תסמונת פאראנאופלסטית
ג. קרישיות יתר האופיינית למחלת הודג’קין
ד. תופעה מאוחרת של טיפול קרינתי
ה. הישנות המחלה במערכת העצבים
ד. תופעה מאוחרת של טיפול קרינתי
Radiation injury to the brain:
* Acute reaction: seizure, transient worsening of tumour symtpoms, signs of increased ICP
Symptoms subside days to weeks – steroid administered.
* Early delayed – tumour symptoms increase, reflect extensive demyelination, loss of oligodendrocytes and degree of tissue necrosis. Treated with steroids.
* Late-delayed process – may appear years after – necrosis of white matter, cavitation, demyelinating process, diffuse vascular changes – hyaline thickening with fibrinoid necrosis and widespread microthrombosis.
Symptoms usually mimic evolving mass or a subacute dementia.
- Another syndrome: SMART – Stroke Like Migraine Attacks after Radiation Therapy
Typically young adult who years after receiving radiation develops episodes of severe headache and simultaneous symptoms such as aphasia, hemiparesis, hemianopia sometimes lasting days
בן 45 לאחר דום לב והחייאה ממושכת סובל מהפרעות קשות בזיכרון. הפגיעה המוחית כוללת בסבירות הגבוהה את:
א. cornu amonis of hippocampus
ב. subiculum
ג. Fimbria
ד. Dorsomedial nucleus of thalamus
ה. Mammillary bodies
Cornu amonis of hippocampus
The CA1 region of hippocampus is selectively vulnerable to a variety of insults, including hypoxia-ischemia
בפתוגנזה של אילו מהמחלות הבאות לא תואר תפקיד ל
expanded trinucleotide repeats
1. huntington’s disease
2. Friedreich ataxia
3. ataxia telangiectasia
4. myotonic dystrophy
5. Dentato-rubral-pallido-lusian atrophy (DRPLA)
- ataxia telangiectasia
איזה פתולוגיה הכי שכיחה כממצא מקרי בנתיחות מוח?
א. אנוריזמה
ב. AVM
ג. AV fistula
ד. Venous anomaly
Venous anomaly
This is perhaps the most common cerebral vascular malformation,
estimated to occur in almost 3 percent of large autopsy series 858
בת 36 עם טרשת נפוצה מתלוננת על הפרעה בראיה. בבדיקת smooth pursuit : התנועה לא חלקה
ומפורקת לסקדות. בבדיקת סקדות: העיניים עוברות את המטרה וחוזרות עד לפיקסציה על המטרה.
פגיעה באיזה מיקום תגרום להפרעה כזאת.?
א. Flocculo-nodular node
ב. Lateral medulla
ג. Medial lemniscus
ד. Superior cerebellar peduncle
Flocculo-nodular lobe
מה לא נראה בנוירואקנטוציטוזיס?
1. רעד
2. טיקים
3. דיסטוניה
4. כוריאה
5. הערכ החזרים גידיים
רעד
Acanthocytosis is associated either with conditions of cell lipid membrane deficiency
i.e. Bassen Kornzweig or without the deficiency – as in Neuroacanthocytosis.
Neuroacanthocytosis:
Onset in adolescence of generalised involuntary movements – chorea, dytonia, tics, vocalisations, lip and tongue biting often beginning orofacial dyskinesias and spreading.
Mild to moderate mental retardation, behavioural disturbances
Absent tendon reflexes due to chronic axonal neuropathy and denervation atrophy of muscles
Acanthocytes in RBC smear.
Associated with gene for Chorein
May be AR,
X - linked (McLeod) – which has the feature of degeneration of caudate and putamen and myopathy with elevated CPK – due to gene defect in KX Protein – Kell Antigens
מה לא עושה רעד
1. טופומקס
2. וולפורט
3. ליתיום
4. סולפריד
5. אמינופילין
- טופומקס (מהווה טיפול לרעד ראשוני)
common side affects:
* topomax- Renal stones, angle-closure glaucoma, hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis, depression, parasthesia, weight loss, cognitive decline, aphasia
- Depalept- hepatotoxic, parkinsonism, amonia, weight gain, PCOS, menstration abnormalities, pancreatitis, alopecia, tremor, thrombocytopenia
- Sulpiride=modal- an atypical antipshychotic drug of the benzamide class. treatment of depression and vertigo. selective antagonist of dopamine D2-D3. common side effect- parkinsonism and tremor
- Aminophylline bronchodilator- a non selective adenosine receptor antagonist (adenosine= decreases beta adrenergic effects). in other words- aminophylline causes tremor by increasing beta activity.
מה לא נראה בהיפומגנזמיה?
1. חולשת שרירים
2. פרכוסים
3. רעד
4. שינוי התנהגותי
שינוי התנהגותי לא נראה בהיפומגנזמיה.
- Hypomagnesemia- convulsions, tetanic muscle spasms, muscle weakness, tremor.
- Hypermagnesemia- Depression of CNS function, muscle weakness
חולה עם אי ספיקת כליות ויתר לחץ דם מטופל בדיאליזה, סובל מישנוניות, עצירות, ריגידיות וג’רקינג. מה יש לו?
1. הומוציסטאינמיה
2. היפומגנזמיה
3. היפרקלצמיה
4. היפותירואידיזם
היפרקלצמיה.
serum calcium concentration greater than 10.5 mg/ dL. If the serum protein content is normal, Ca levels greater than 12 mg/ dL are required to produce neurologic Symptoms. However, with low serum albumin levels, an
increased proportion of the serum Ca is in the unbound or ionized form (upon which the clinical effects depend), and symptoms may occur with total serum Ca levels as low as 10 mg/ dL.
* In young persons, the most common cause of hypercalcemia is hyperparathyroidism (either primary or secondary);
* in older persons, osteolytic bone tumors, particularly meta-static carcinoma and multiple myeloma, are often causative.
* * Less-common causes are vitamin D intoxication, prolonged immobilization, hyperthyroidism, sarcoidosis, and decreased calcium excretion (renal failure).
* Anorexia, nausea and vomiting, fatigue, and headache are usually the initial symptoms, followed by confusion (rarely a delirium) and drowsiness, progressing to stupor or coma in untreated patients. A history of recent constipation is common. Diffuse myoclonus and rigidity occur occasionally, as do elevations of spinal fluid protein (up to 175 mg/100 mL).
* Convulsions are uncommon.
צעירה מופיעה עם סחרחורת, ניסטגמוס רוטטורי, הפרעה בתחושה בפנים מימין ובגוף משמאל.
MRI- שני נגעים בגזע המוח.
איך תעשה אבחנה דפניטיבית של טרשת נפוצה?
1. VEP
2. OCB
3. BERA
4. MBP
5. MRI in 3 months
MRI in 3 months
חולה עם דרופ פוט בילטרלי, לאחיו סיפור דומה. מה לא נראה בפתולוגיה?
1. group atrophy
2. אטרופיה של סיבי שריר
3. אובדן מיאלין פרוקסימלי
לא נראה אובדן מיאלין פרוקסימלי
שינויים פתולוגים ב-
CMT
1. שינויים דגנרטיבים בעצבים עם אובדן סיבים סנסורים ומוטורים גדולים, נותרת רקמת חיבור שיירית. יש פגיעה באקסונים וגם במיאלין גם דיסטלי וגם פרוקסימלי (יותר דיסטאלי).
2. type 1= onion bulb & enlarged nerves
3. שינויים משניים עם ירידה בכמות תאים בקרן הקדמית ובדורסל רוט גנגליה
4. מעורבות סיבים סנסורים בעמודות אחוריות
5. אין מעורבות סיבים אוטונומית
6. group atrophy- כעדות לדגנרציה נוירונלית
חולה עם נוירופתיה פריפרית, הגדלת כבד וטחול, היפרטריכוזיס ועיבוי עור, בבדיקת דם בי גמופתי. איזו בדיקה תשלים את האבחנה?
1. ביופסיית עור לאמילואיד
2. קריוגלובינמיה
3. גרנולומה אאוזינופילית בעצמות הגולגולת
4. נגע אוסטאוסקלרוטי בעצמות ארוכות
נגע אוסטאוסקלרוטי בעצמות ארוכות
POEMS Syndrome,
A neuropathy associated with multiple myeloma it complicates 13 to 14 percent of cases of multiple myeloma and has a disproportionately high association with the osteosclerotic form of the disease.
An abnormal monoclonal globulin (mainly with the kappa light chain component in multiple myeloma but lambda in the osteosclerotic type) is found in the serum of more than 80 percent of patients with myelomatous neuropathy. In a special and small group of patients with osteosclerotic Myeloma, there is a predominantly demyelinating sensorimotor polyneuropathy and systemic disease termed POEMS (i.e., polyneuropathy of moderate severity is associated with organomegaly, endocrinopathy, elevated M protein, and skin changes, mainly hypertrichosis and skin thickening).
The presence of the disease can be suspected from the presence of demyelinating features on the nerve conduction studies, an immunoglobulin spike in the blood, sometimes polyclonal or biclonal rather than monoclonal and, as mentioned, possessing a lambda light chain component. The diagnosis requires the demonstration of one or more osteosclerotic lesions by a radiographic survey of the long bones, pelvis, spine, and skull as well as a PET study; which usually shows the osteosclerotic lesions as highly active (a bone scan is insensitive) and a bone marrow examination, which shows a moderate increase in the number of well-differentiated plasma cells. In most of our patients there have been several discrete bone lesions concentrated in the ribs and spine; the skull and long bones may harbor such lesions as well, or there may be a single lesion, which is often situated in the spinal column. Biopsy of a bone lesion is justified. The organomegaly and skin changes are apparently the result of high levels of circulating VEGF that is produced by the tumor and is useful in confirming the diagnosis.
חולה אונקולוגית במהלך טיפול מפתחת דיסארתריה, כאב ראש, חוסר יציבות, סחרחורת ודיסמטריה. הסיבה הסבירה היא:
1. טיפול במתוטרקסט
2. טיפול בציטאראבין
3. טיפול בוינקריסטין
טיפול בציטאראבין
Cytarabine, long used in the treatment of acute nonlymphocytic leukemia, is not neurotoxic when given in the usual systemic daily doses of 100 to 200 mg/m2* The administration of very high doses (up to 30 times the usual dose) induces remissions in patients’ refractory to conventional treatments. It also may produce, however, a severe degree of cerebellar degeneration in a considerable proportion of cases. Ataxia of gait and limbs, dysarthria, and nystagmus develop as early as 5 to 7 days after the beginning of high-dose treatment and worsen rapidly. Postmortem examination has disclosed a diffuse degeneration of Purkinje cells, most marked in the depths of the folia, as well as a patchy degeneration of other elements of the cerebellar cortex. Other patients receiving high-dose ara-C have developed a mild, reversible cerebellar syndrome with the same clinical features. Because patients older than 50 years of age are said to be far more likely to develop cerebellar degeneration than those younger than 50 years of age, the former should be treated with a lower dosage.
5FU has a similar syndrome
מה נכון לבי
Mad cow disease
(CJD variant)
1. החולים מבוגרים יותר
2. סימנים תחושתיים בהתחלת המחלה
3. פעילות מחזורית בEEG
4. קיים סיפור משפחתי
5. אין הפרעות פסיכיאטריות
ב. סימנים תחושתיים בהתחלת המחלה
צעירים יותר, המחלה מתחילה בהפרעות פסיכיאטריות או תחושתיות
אין סיפור משפחתי
אין פעילות מוקדית מחזורית בEEG
באיזה מהגידולים הבאים שכיח יותר פיזור תאים דרך הנוזל הצרברו ספינלי
1. מדולובלסטומה
2. אדנומה פיטואיטרית
3. גליובלסטומה
4. אוליגודנדרוגליומה
5. קרניופרנגיומה
מדולבלסטומה- הגידול ממלא את החדר הרביעי ומסנין את הרצפה שלו. יכולה להיות גם הזרעה של הגידול דרך האפנדימה והמנינגים של הציסטרנה מגנה וסביב חוט השדרה.
ב11% מתוך הגליומות עם הזריעה המנינגיאלית מדובר באוליגונדנרוגליומות (פחות שכיח לעומת מדולובלסטומה וגליובלסטומה)
Phenytoin – loss of ankle and patellar reflexes, mild distal Symmetrical impairement of sensation, slow conduction Velocities in peripherla nerves of legs and rarely, weakness of distal musculature
A large number of medications are potential sources of polyneuropathy of predominantly sensory type. Most are
dose-dependent and are therefore more or less predictable after large cumulative doses of the drug have been given (e.g., in cancer chemotherapy) or after prolonged administration for other reasons.
Among chemotherapeutic agents in current use, particularly cisplatin, carboplatin, and bortezomib, are known to evoke a dose-dependent, predominantly sensory polyneuropathy, which begins several weeks after completion of therapy in at least half of the patients. Proprioception and vibratory sensation are most severely impaired. Histopathology – accummulation of platinum with secondary degeneration of posterior columns.
additional polyneuropathies due to medication are:
* Paclitaxel
* Vincristine – sensorimotor – foot drop. Dose depndent and reversible
* Isoniazid – sensory with pain
* Chloramphenical – acral paraestheisa and optic neuropathy
* Metronidazole – same as above
* Linezolid – sensory neuropathy
* Dapsone – motor
* Nitrofurantoin – severe, symmetrical sensorimotor polyneuropathy (worse if renal failure)
* Amiodarone – sensorimotor neuropathy
* Hydralazine
* Disulfaram
בן 16 , מאובחן עם גידול מוחי מסוג גליומה, נוטל פניטואין. עומד לעבור הקרנות מוחיות. הטיפול
בפניטואין במצב זה מעלה את הסיכון ל-:
א. הפרעות קצב
ב. חוסר שליטה על הפרכוסים
ג. שינוי במצב ההכרה
ד. תגובה עורית קשה
תגובה עורית קשה
Treatment At operation, usually only part of the tumor can be removed; its multicentricity and diffusely infiltrative character defy the scalpel. Partial resection of the tumor (“debulking”), however, seems to prolong survival as noted below. Neurosurgeons have developed a number of cortical electrophysiologic mapping and imaging techniques to facilitate maximal resection without injuring adjacent brain tissue.
For a brief period, corticosteroids, usually dexamethasone in doses of 4 to 10 mg q6–12h, are helpful if there are symptoms of mass effect, such as headache or drowsiness; local signs and surrounding edema tend to improve as well. Antiepileptic medications are not required unless there have been seizures. Although some neurologists and neurosurgeons still administer them in order to preempt a convulsion, several series have found antiepileptic medications to be unnecessary for this purpose (see for example, Glantz et al). Serious skin reactions (erythema multiforme and Stevens-Johnson syndrome) may occur in patients receiving phenytoin at the same time as cranial radiation
כל הבאים הם גורמי הסיכון לאפילפסיה פוסט טראומטית מאוחרת פרט ל :
א. המטומה תוך מוחית
ב. שבר דחוס בגולגולת
ג. פרכוסים בשבוע ראשון לאחר הפגיעה
ד. פגיעה באזורים הפריאטלים
ה. אלכוהוליזם
ה. אלכוהוליזם
Seizures are the most common delayed sequela of craniocerebral trauma, with an overall incidence of approximately 5 percent in patients with closed head injuries and 50 percent in those who had sustained a compound skull fracture and direct wounds of the brain .
עוד גורמים: משך זמן אובדן ההכרה, פרכוס לא מיידי אלא בשבוע הראשון, נגעים פריאטליים או
פרונטליים אחוריים, פגיעה חודרת.
הפרכוסים יכולים לחלוף לאחר מספר שנים .
אלכוהול לא מעלה סיכון להופעה ראשונית, אבל בחולים עם פרכוסים שחלפו יכול לגרום לחזרה של
הפרכוסים גם לאחר חשיפה בודדת
The Duane retraction syndrome
נקראת כך בגלל רטרקציה של גלגל העין והיצרות של ה- palpebral fissure
בזמן ניסיון לביצוע אדוקציה
זה קורה כשעצב האבדוסנס חסר והלטרל רקטוס מעוצבב גם הוא על ידי עצב האוקולומוטור. בזמן ניסיון לביצוע אדוקציה יש כיווץ גם של הרקטוס המדיאלי וגם הלטרלי בו”ז, מה שגורם לרטרקציה בכל כיווני המבט.
בן 16 , סובל מדיסטוניה של הרגל הימנית. התופעה מחמירה בשעות הערב ונעלמת לאחר שינה.
האבחנה הנכונה קרוב לוודאי הינה:
א. Dopa responsive dystonia
ב. Dystonia 1-DYT
ג. Friedrich etaxia
ד. Huntington’s chorea
ה. Sydenham chorea
Dopa responsive dystonia (Segawa)
כל הממצאים הבאים מלווים תסמונת Shy drager syndrome פרט ל :
א. Orthostatic hyppotension
ב. Erectile dysfunction
ג. Laryngeal dysphonia
ד. Gastric dilatation
ה. Urinary incontinence
ד. gastric dilatation
In addition to orthostatic hypotension, other features of autonomic failure include erectile dysfunction loss of sweating, dry mouth, miosis, and urinary retention or incontinence, fecal incontinence. Vocal cord palsy is an important and sometimes initial manifestation of the disorder; it may cause dysphonia or stridor and airway obstruction requiring tracheostomy. A dusky discoloration of the hands as a sign of this disorder was ascribed to poor control of cutaneous blood flow
ירידה בלחץ דם אורטוסטטי בתסמונת
Shy drager נגרמת מ :
א. Dopaminergic therapy
ב. Anticholinergic therapy
ג. The loss of pigmented neurons in hypothalamus
ד. The loss of intermediolateral horm cells and pigmented muclei of brainstem
ה. Loss of sympathetic ganglion cells
More than half of the patients with striatonigral degeneration have orthostatic hypotension, which proves at autopsy to be associated with loss of intermediolateral hom cells and pigmented nuclei of the brainstem
איזה טריפלט לא CAG
1. Huntington’s disease
2. SCA-3
3. SCA-1
4. DRPLA
5. myotonic dystrophy
myotonic dystrophy- CTG
מה לא גורם ל-
downbeat nystagmus
1. פוראמן מגנום
2. פרינאו
3. הרעלת ליתיום
4. וורניקה
- פרינאו- לא גורם לניסטגמוס downbeat
מה לא גורם להיפרוויסקוסיטי
1. היפרגליקמיה
2. היפרליפידמיה
3. APLA
4. מקרוגלובולינמיה
5. פוליציטמיה
APLA לא גורמת להיפרוויסקוסיטי
In states of anemia, polycythemia, thrombocythemia,extreme hyperlipidemia, hyperviscosity from macroglobulinemia,
sickle cell anemia, and extreme hyper- or
Hypoglycemia, there may be transient neurologic deficits related to rheologic or other changes in blood, as already
mentioned. In some of these cases, the metabolic or rhealogic change appears to have brought out symptoms of stenosis in a large or small vessel, but just as often the
vasculature is normal.
Patients with antiphospholipid antibodies may have TIAs, the mechanism of which is
undefined.
היפרקלצמיה כרונית ממושכת-
1. דכאון
2. בלבול
3. לחץ תוך גולגולתי מוגבר עם פפילדמה
4. חלבון גבוה בCSF
תשובה 5- CSF חלבון גבוה ב-
- In young persons, the most common cause of hypercalcemia is hyperparathyroidism (either primary or secondary); in older persons, osteolytic bone tumors, particularly
meta-static carcinoma and multiple myeloma, are often causative. Less-common causes are vitamin D intoxication, prolonged immobilization, hyperthyroidism, sarcoidosis,
and decreased calcium excretion (renal failure).
Anorexia, nausea and vomiting, fatigue, and headache are usually the initial symptoms, followed by confusion
(rarely a delirium) and drowsiness, progressing to stupor or coma in untreated patients. A history of recent constipation is common. Diffuse myoclonus and rigidity occur occasionally, as do elevations of spinal fluid protein (up to 175 mg/100 mL). Convulsions are uncommon. -
Hypocalcemia The usual manifestations are paresthesias, tetany, and seizures. With severe and persistent hypocalcemia, altered mental status in the form of depression, confusion, dementia, or personality change can occur. Anxiety to the point of panic attack is also known. Even coma may result, in which case there may
be papilledema as a result of increased intracranial pressure. Aside from the raised pressure, the CSF shows no consistent abnormality. This increase in intracranial pressure may be manifest by headache and papilledema without altered mentation or with visual obscurations.
מה מגיב טוב לכימותרפיה
1. אוליגודנדרוגליומה אנפלסטית
2. פילוציטיק אסטרוציטומה
3. אצסטרוציטומה אנפלסטית
4. GBM
אוליגודנדרוגליומה אנפלסטית
Of considerable importance is that many oligodendrogliomas, especially anaplastic ones, respond impressively to chemotherapeutic agents.
IBM sphoradic
מה לא נכון?
1. מקושר עם גידולי ריאה
2. אטרופיה של קוואד
3. אטרופיה של פלקסורים
4. עמידים לטיפול אימונוסופרסיבי
- מקושר עם גידולי ריאה- זו התשובה הלא נכונה.
IBM- אין גידול ואין טיפול
פציאליס לא יכול להגרם ע”י
1. לפרה
2. קרונס
3. ליים
4. מוביוס
5. מלקרסון רוזנטל
- קרונס.
bilateral facial paralysis
(facial diplegia) is most often a manifestation of the
Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS) and may also occur in Lyme disease and rarely, with HIV infection. There are numerous other causes of bilateral facial palsy, all of them infrequent. Keane (1994) listed the idiopathic (now presumably mainly viral) variety, GBS, and meningealinfiltration by tumor as the most common causes, but also found two cases of syphilis among 43 patients. The bilateral syndrome has been reported in approximately 7 of every 1,000 patients with sarcoidosis, although our impression is that it is more frequent. When acute in onset and associated with parotid gland swelling from sarcoidosis, it has been referred to as uveoparotid fever, or Heerfordt syndrome. In typical cases of sarcoidosis, the paralysis on each side tends to be temporally separated by weeks or more. Mononucleosis may affect both sides of the face almost simultaneously; this is probably a form of GBS. Bifacial palsy is also a feature of the developmental disorder, Mobius syndrome (see Chap. 38). Less common is the Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome, consisting of the triad of recurrent facial paralysis, facial (particularly labial) edema, and less constantly, plication of the tongue. The syndrome begins in childhood or adolescence and may be familial. Biopsy of the lip or skin may reveal a granulomatous inflammation. The cause is not known and, despite the cardinal feature of angioneurotic edema, complement levels are normal. A series of biopsied cases has been reported by Elias and colleagues. Kennedy syndrome, causes bifacial weakness in addition to bulbar palsy as the disease progresses; preceding facial fasciculations are characteristic. Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy, as the name implies, incorporates facial weakness but would not be mistaken for Bell’s palsy (see Chap. 48). The same is true for the rare form of amyloidosis associated with crystal lattice deposits in the cornea that typically involves both facial nerves. Causes of recurrent Bell’s palsy have been listed earlier and are surrunarized by Pitts and colleagues ** leprae**- unilateral facial
מה נכון לגבי נוגדנים למיאסטניה
1. בהרבה מקרים מעיד על תימומה
2. קיימת קורלציה עם הקליניקה
3. מפחית את כמות הרצפטורים
- מפחית את כמות הרצפטורים
מה לא מעלה
CBF
באופן נורמאלי
1. יל”ד
2. עלייה של PCO2
3. ירידה של PO2
4. אדנוזין
5. אצטיל כולין
יל”ד לא מעלה
CBF
באופן נורמאלי.
PCO2- וזודילאטור בכמות גבוהה
PO2- ירידה בו יוצרת וזודילאטציה
אדנוזין וזודילאטור
מתי נפגע קורפוס קאלוסום
1. Marchiafava bignami disease
2. wenike enchephaloptayh
- Marchiafava bignami disease
חולה אחרי ניתוח אאורטה מתעורר עם פרפלגיה. איפה הפגיעה?
1. C2
2. C8
3. D3
4. L3
5. S1
D3
the junction between th vertebral spinal and aortic circulation typically lies at the T2-T3 segment but mist ischemic lesions lie well below this level
בניתוח בחוט השדרה- חתך של רבע קדמי מימין, מה לא נחתך?
1. ספינותלמי
2. קורטיקוספינלי
3. וסטיבולוספינלי
4. קונאוצרבלר
קונאוצרבלר
מה לא רואים ב
PTC-
1. חדרים מעט מוגדלים בMRI
2. טיפול באקנה
3. הגדלת כתם עיוור
4. מיקסאדמה
לא נראה חדרים מוגדלים ב
MRI
מה לא נכון לגבי
BBB
1. the entire brain is behind BBB
2. גלוקוז עובר פאסיבית ע”י מפל ריכוזים
3. נוצר ע”י
tight junctions של תאי אפיטל
המוח לא כולו מכוסה במחסום דם מוח-
Areas which contain fenestrated capillaries, and thus lack the blood brain barrier, are:
circumventricular organs (CVO)
area postrema
median eminence
subforniceal region
posterior pituitary gland
pineal gland
organum vasoculosum
lamina terminalis
choroid plexus
dura mater
דופמידרון- מדוע מועדף
1. אינו חוצה BBB
2. עובד פריפרית
3. עובד על D4
4. עובד על D2 וD3
אינו חוצה BBB
METOCLOPRAMIDE & DOMPERIDONE
Metoclopramide and domperidone are dopamine D2-receptor antagonists. Within the gastrointestinal tract activation of dop- amine receptors inhibits cholinergic smooth muscle stimulation; blockade of this effect is believed to be the primary prokinetic mechanism of action of these agents. These agents increase esoph- ageal peristaltic amplitude, increase lower esophageal sphincter pressure, and enhance gastric emptying but have no effect on small intestine or colonic motility. Metoclopramide and domperi- done also block dopamine D2 receptors in the chemoreceptor trigger zone of the medulla (area postrema), resulting in potent antinausea and antiemetic action.
מה אינו גורם ל
recurrent meningitis
1. HSV
2. SLE
3. NSAIDS
4. MYCOPLASMA
5. BECHET
mycoplasma does not cause recurrent meningitis
The causes of recurrent aseptic meningitis are numerous. Many are given in table 1, but this list can be bewildering when applied to the management of individual patients. It is better to group the causes as follows, to avoid missing pertinent investigations:
- Infection—Chronic infective meningitis may present with recurrent clinical episodes separated by asymptomatic periods, even though the CSF is abnormal throughout. This pattern may be seen with syphilis, brucellosis, Lyme disease, fungal meningitis, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). With other organisms, a different mechanism of genuine reactivation of latent infection applies. The prime examples here are herpes simplex virus (HSV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), and Toxoplasma.
- Structural lesions—Recurrent chemical meningitis occurs when structural lesions along the neuraxis periodically discharge their contents into the CSF. This phenomenon is well known for craniopharyngiomas, epidermoid cysts, and gliomas, but other causes have been described.
- Drugs—Many drugs are associated with a risk of recurrent aseptic meningitis (table 3). This list is far from exhaustive—isolated case reports have implicated numerous other agents.
- Chronic inflammatory diseases (and other non-infective causes)—Recurrent aseptic meningitis is a recognised feature of sarcoidosis, lupus, and other connective tissue disorders, vasculitis, Behçet’s disease, and recurrent hereditary polyserositis. Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome is a very rare condition in which aseptic meningitis is associated with sensorineural deafness, uveitis, retinal haemorrhages, and skin and hair depigmentation. Migraine may rarely present with fever, symptoms suggestive of meningo-encephalitis, and CSF pleocytosis, but this must be a diagnosis of exclusion.
הרעלת אלכוהול אינה גורמת לSIADH
of the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic Hormone secretion (SIADH). This state is of special importance because it complicates neurologic diseases of many Types: head trauma, bacterial meningitis and encephalitis, cerebral infarction, subarachnoid hemorrhage, cerebral and systemic neoplasm, Guillain-Barre syndrome and the effects of certain medications. SIADH is the result of excretion of urine that is hypertonic relative to the plasma. . . As the hyponatremia develops, there IS a decrease in
alertness, which progresses through stages of confusion to coma, often with convulsions. As with many other metabolic derangements, the severity of the clinical effect is related to the rapidity of decline in serum Na . Lack of recognition of
this state may allow the serum Na to fall to dangerously low levels, 100 mEq/L or lower.
Treatment Most instances of hyponatremia have
developed slowly, allowing for maintenance of brain volume by the extrusion from cells of various osmothic substances. Rapid correction of sodium in these circumstances risks a reversal of osmotic gradient and a reduction in brain volume. This, in turn, is associated with a special type of central nervous system demyelination (“osmotic demyelination” and central pontine myelinolysis)
Wegener Granulomatosis (C-ANCA)
This is a rare disease of unknown cause, affecting adults as a rule and favoring males slightly. A subacutely evolving vasculitis with necrotizing granulomas of the upper and lower respiratory tracts followed by necrotizing glomerulonephritis are its main features.
Neurologic complications come later in one-third to one-half of cases and take two forms:
1. a peripheral neuropathy either in a pattern of polyneuropathy or, far more frequently, in a pattern of mononeuropathy multiplex.
2. multiple cranial neuropathies as a result of direct extension of the nasal and sinus granulomas into adjacent upper cranial nerves and from adjacent to pharyngeal lesions to the lower cranial nerves
FIRDA לא קיים בשלב 4 של השינה
FIRDA is a rhythmic 2 to 3 Hz delta frequency activity with an amplitude of 50–100 mv that predominates in the bilateral frontal regions of the waking adult electroencephalogram (EEG). The waves are usually regular with a sinusoidal pattern. FIRDA usually occurs in short bursts lasting 2 to 6 seconds and must be differentiated from slow eye blink artifact Figure 2. The electrooculogram (EOG) electrodes can aid in the differentiation of the two. FIRDA, unlike eye blink artifact, may have posterior field extension. It is attenuated by alerting or eye opening and accentuated by eye closure, hyperventilation, drowsiness, and stage N1 sleep. It disappears with the onset of Stage N2 sleep but may reappear during REM sleep. If diagnostic uncertainty is present, a full EEG montage should be used and the EEG recording should include 20 minutes during wakefulness, followed by 3 minutes of hyperventilation and standard intermittent light stimulation to adequately document FIRDA.
באיזה מהגידולים הבאים אין נטייה להסתיידויות
1. אסטרוציטומה
2. אפנדימומה
3. מדולובלסטומה
4. אוליגודנדרוגליומה
מדולובלסטומה ללא נטייה להסתיידות
Calcifications found in Astrocytomas, Oligodendroglionas, Ependymoomas and Meningiomas, pituitary adenoma, craniopharyngioma, Hand-Schuller-Christian disease, and sarcoidosis.
Disconnection syndromes:
* Conduction aphasia: The Wernicke area in the temporal lobe is separated from the Broca area, presumably by a lesion in the arcuate fasciculus or external capsule or subcortical white matter. However, most often the lesion is in the supramarginal gyrus.
* Sympathetic apraxia: loss of fibers that connect the left and right motor association cortices, a lesion in the more anterior parts of the corpus callosum or the subcortical white matter underlying Broca area and contiguous frontal cortex causes an apraxia of commanded movements of the left hand.
* Pure Word Deafness: loss of ability to discriminate speech sounds. Subcortical Lesion of left temporal lobe, spanning wernickes and fibers that cross corpus callosum From opposite side. Failure to activate left auditory language areas. Also in bilateral lesions of auditory cortex.
* Alexia without Agraphia: splenium of corpus callosum and left occipital lobe with loss of Connection of visual fibres to left hemisphere language areas.
בן 5 עם חולשה, ספלנומגליה וצהבת, במשפחה אח עם
SIDS
החולשה פרוקסימלית, רמות קטונים נמוכות, גלוקוז נמוך. מאיזו מחלה סביר שסובל?
1. מחלת אגירת גליקוגן
2. הפרעה במטבולזים של חומצות שומן
3. הפרעה בשרשרת החמצן
הפרעה במטבוליזם של חומצות שומן (קטונים נמוכים!)
Although it has long been known that lipids are an important source of energy in muscle metabolism (along Wlth glucose), it was only in 1970 reported the abnormal storage of lipid in muscle fibers
attributable to a defect in the oxidation of long-chain fatty Acids.
Despite the many biochemical abnormalities that
have been identified in the fatty acid metabohc pathways, there are essentially 3 clinical patterns by which these defects are expressed:
1. One constellation of symptoms referred to as the encephalopathic syndrome has its onset in infancy or early childhood. Its very first manifestation may be sudden death (sudden infant death syndrome[SIDS]), or there may be vomiting, lethargy and coma, hepatomegaly, cardiomegaly, muscular weakness, and hypoketotic hypoglycemia, with prominent Hyperammonemia, that is, a Reye-like syndrome. Undoubtedly, instances of this syndrome have not been recognized as abnormalities of fatty acid metabolism but have been designated incorrectly as the Reye syndrome or as SIDS.
2. A second (myopathic) syndrome appears in late infancy, childhood, or adult life and takes the form of a progressive myopathy, with or without cardiomyopathy. The myopathy may follow episodes of hypoketotic Hypoglycemia or may develop de novo.
3. The third syndrome is one that usually begins in the second decade of life and is induced by a sustained period of physical activity or fasting. It is characterized by repeated episodes of rhabdomyolysis with or without myoglobinuria.
חולה עם פרפלגיה שהתפתחה באופן אקוטי, פלס תחושתי בגובה
T10,
איזה מזהם לא אופייני למחלה זו
1. CMV
2. HSV
3. מיקופלזמיה
4. EBV
5. קמפילובטר
קמפילובקטר עושה גיליאן ברה ולא מיאליטיס.
- **מיאליטיס ויראלי **
* אנטרווירוסים כולל פוליו וקוקסקי
* HSV,VZV
* CMV,EBV
* ארבווירוסים
* כלבת -
מייאליטיס חיידקי
* lyme
* סיפיליס
* TB
* לגיונלה - מייליטיס פרזיטרי- שכיסטוזומה בעיקר.
מה נראה ב
PET
בזמן התקף של
cluster headache?
1. תלמוס- VPM
2. היפותלמוס- suprachiasmatic nucleus
3. periaqueductal gray
4. sensory motor cortex
5. parietal lobe
suprachiasmatic nucleus
The cyclic nature of the attacks has been linked to a hypothalamic mechanism that governs the circadian rhythm. At the onset of the headache, the region of the suprachiasmatic nucleus appears to be active on PET (May et al). Hypothalamic activation has also been found in migraine, SUNCT, chronic paroxysmal hemicrania,
and hemicrania continua. Moreover, stimulation of the hypothalamus has proved effective, although highly experimental, in stopping chronic cluster headache and SUNCT
התלבטות בין 1 ל-2. נטייה יותר חזקה ל-2 .
פירוט המסיחים:
-
FMR1- fragile X- the most common inherited forms of developmental delay, estimated to occur in 1 of every 1,500 male live births and accounting for 10 percent of severe developmental delay in males. Females, with two X chromosomes, are affected about half as frequently, and then only to a slight degree. Unusual site of frequent breakage (“fragility”) on the X chromosome and related it to a syndrome that included developmental delay, flaring ears, elongated facies, slightly reduced cranial perimeter, normal stature, and enlarged testes.
More recently, rare progressive ataxia has been reported in adults who harbor the chromosomal abnormality and had displayed little or no cognitive deficiency. The chromosomal fragility appears to be due to a heritable, unstable CGG repeating sequence in the X chromosome. Affected individuals have over 230 repeats and carriers have 60 to 230 repeats. The prolonged sequence inactivates a gene (FMR1) that codes
for an RNA-binding protein of as yet an unknown
connection to brain function. the fragile X alteration occasionally turns up in mentally normal males; in some instances, the male children of their daughters have the disease.
In some of the cases we have observed, the intellectual deficit has been mild in degree and the main abnormalities have taken the form of troublesome behavior, logorrhea, an autistic type of gaze aversion, and asociality. a curious form of progressive adult onset ataxia and tremor, previously thought to be of a
degenerative type, has been discovered to be caused by a “premutation“ of the fragile X gene (50 to 200 trinucleotide repeats). - an unusual variant of the degenerative process
with onset in mid- or late adulthood, mainly but not exclusively in men, and consisting of gait or limb ataxia and mild tremor. The process affects carriers of a “premutation“ who have 50 to 200 CGG repeat sequences in the FMRl gene. In contradistinction to the full mutation of over 200 repeats, there is apparently a buildup of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) in the adult form that interferes in some way with cellular function. Aggregating several studies, the frequency of this genetic abnormality among otherwise unassignable adult ataxia cases is less than 10 percent.
Some of these patients have characteristic symmetrical signal MRI changes in the middle cerebellar Peduncles in the T2 sequence. -
Frataxin – Friedrich Ataxia-
- progressive spinocerebellar ataxia
- accounts for about half of all cases of hereditary ataxias.
- its incidence among Europeans and North Americans is 1.5 cases per 100,000 per year
- The pattern of inheritance is autosomal recessive.
- Genetic linkage studies led to the assignment of the gene mutation to chromosome 9q13-2
in virtually all cases the mutation is an expansion of a GAA trinucleotide repeat within a gene that codes for the protein frataxin, (within an intron). the consequence is a reduction in levels of frataxin and loss of its function.
Ataxia of gait is nearly always the initial running symptom. Difficulties in standing steadily and in are early symptoms. The hands usually become clumsy months or years after the gait disorder, and dysarthric speech appears after the arms are involved (this is rarely an early symptom). Exceptionally the ataxia begins rather abruptly after a febrile illness, and one leg may become clumsy before the other.
In some patients, pes cavus and kyphoscoliosis (scoliosis) are evident well before the neurologic symptoms; in others, they follow by several years. The characteristic foot deformity takes the form of a high plantar arch with retraction of the toes at the metatarsophalangeal joints and flexion at the interphalangeal joints (hammertoes). A notable feature in more than half of patients is a
Cardiomyopathy. Many of the patients die as a result of cardiac arrhythmia or congestive heart failure. For this reason, it is essential that individuals have a cardiologic assessment.
Kyphoscoliosis and restricted respiratory function are additional important contributory causes of death.
10 percent of these patients have diabetes mellitus and a higher proportion have impaired glucose tolerance; there is both insulin deficiency and peripheral insulin resistance.
In the fully developed syndrome, the abnormality of gait is of mixed sensory and cerebellar type.
The patient stands with feet wide apart, constantly shifting position to maintain balance.
Positive Romberg sign.
Attempts to correct the imbalance may result in abrupt, wild movements. Often there is a rhythmic tremor of the head. Eventually, the arms are grossly ataxic, and both action and intention tremors are manifest. Speech is slow, slurred, explosive, and, finally, almost incomprehensible Breathing, speaking, swallowing, and laughing may be so incoordinated that the patient nearly chokes while speaking Although mentation is generally preserved, emotional lability has been sufficiently prominent The tendon reflexes are abolished in nearly every case.
-
Ataxin 3 – SCA3 – Machado-Joseph
* A special form of hereditary ataxia with brainstem and extrapyramidal signs has been described in patients mainly, but not exclusively, of Portuguese-Azorean origin.
* Autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance
* Slowly progressive ataxia beginning in adolescence or early adult life in association with *hyperreflexia, extrapyramidal features, dystonia, bulbar signs, distal motor weakness, and ophthalmoplegia.
* There is usually no impairment of intellect and in the examples the authors have seen, the extrapyramidal symptoms were mainly rigidity and slowness of movement.
* Early Machado-Joseph disease characteristically demonstrates the finding of dysmetric horizontal and vertical saccades, even before the ataxia is obvious.
* Postmortem examination discloses a degeneration of the dentate nuclei and spinocerebellar tracts and a loss of anterior horn cells and neurons of the pons, substantia nigra, and oculomotor nuclei.
* Unstable number of CAG repeating sequences in a gene, ataxin-3, spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3).
* the MRl findings are of reduced width of the superior and middle cerebellar peduncles, atrophy of the frontal and temporal lobes, and smallness of the pons and globus pallidus.
מקרא לציורים:
* ירוק –כוראה
* צהוב –אטקסיה
* כחול :סימנים פירמידליים
* שוט –שמחזיקים-AD שנחבטים –AR
* משקפיים –עיוורון
* אוזניות-פגיעה בשמיעה
* גפיים בכתום-פולינירופתיה
* כובע-ורוד-שינוי התנהגות
* צירים –EPS
* ברקים כחולים –מיוקולוניות
* שן אחת –דמנציה
* שפם –גנטיקה XLINKED
* אדום –מיופתיה?
- דגנר\קטיבי – כחול טאופאטיה ,צהוב סינקלופתיה
- פסים ורודים –דרמטולוגיה
- אדום ורוד -פוליניורופתיה
הדבר הראשון בפוטנציאל פעולה
1. פתיחת תעלות אשלגן
2. פתיחת תעלות נתרן
3. פירוק ATP
4. הפעלת המשאבה נתרן אשלגן
פתיחת תעלות נתרן