Nutrition Flashcards
Nutrients are
Essential components of diets
Food is
An edible material that provides nutrients
Foodstuff is
Any material made into food
Diet is
A mixture of foodstuffs used to supply nutrients to an animal
Ration is a
Daily allocation of food
Nutrition is the
Process of providing and obtaining the food necessary for the health and growth of an animal. It is a quantitative science.
Nutrients are utilized by the body in this linear fashion (3)
- Digestion and absorption
- Blood transportation
- Metabolism in the cells
The science of nutrition is an integration of
Anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, and ecology
Two main components of food are
-dry matter
-water
Dry matter can be subdivided into
-organic
-inorganic
Inorganic dry matter includes
Minerals
Organic dry matter includes (6)
-carbohydrates
-lipids
-proteins
-nucleic acids
-organic acids
-vitamins
What is the major determinant of animal health, welfare, and production
Nutrition
In companion animals, poor nutrition can contribute to (5)
-digestive disorders
-obesity
-orthopaedic disease
-cardiorespiratory disease
-predisposition to infectious and parasitic disease
Feed accounts for ___ % of production animal costs
50-70
Three negative impacts of production animals on the environment
-over-grazing
-enteric greenhouse gas emissions
-polluting effects of manus and urine
Feeding tannin-containing feeds in production animals can
Reduce methane-producing rumen Protozoa
Optimizing calcium:phosphorylation ratios of laying birds can help to
Reduce phosphorus excretion and pollution
Two types of carnivores
-obligate carnivores
-mesocarnivores
Carnivores have (4)
-relatively large brains
-less complex digestive system
-strong facial musculature
-specialized dentition for shearing meat
Obligate carnivores (3)
-diet of at least 70% meat
-cannot properly digest vegetation
-examples: cats, ferrets
Mesocarnivores (3)
-diet of at least 50% meat
-can supplement diet with fruits/vegetables/fungi
-examples: dogs, foxes, raccoons
empirical formula of carbohydrates is
(CH2O)n
Omnivores (4)
-can eat and survive on both plant and animal matter
-diet of less than 30% meat
-mixture of sharp teeth and flat molars
-examples: chickens, pigs, humans, brown bears
Anatomically, herbivores can be divided into
-foregut fermenters (ruminants, camelids)
-hindgut fermenters (horses, pigs)
Nutritionally, herbivores can be classified as
-concentrate selectors (deer, giraffes)
-intermediate feeders (goats, alpacas)
-grazers (sheep, cattle, horses)
Herbivores (3)
-only eat feeds that require photosynthesis to live
-specialized dentition for grinding fibre
-large digestive tract for absorption of nutrients
Intermediate herbivore feeders
Change their diet according to availability (goats, alapacas)
Grazers
Mostly eat leaves or grasses (sheep, cattle, horses)
Concentrate selector herbivores (3)
-cannot tolerate large amounts of fibres
-feed on smaller amounts, more frequently
-deer, giraffes
Nutritional wisdom means
Grazing animals choose diets that maximize availability of energy and provide them with positive experiences
Grazing animal behaviours of Sheep (3)
-narrow muzzles, sensitive lips
-can obtain 80% of nutrition from plants
-better suited to pasture with less roughage and more variance
Grazing animal behaviours of Cattle (4)
-wide muzzles
-poorly selective of what they eat
-large amounts of high-fibre feeds
-suited to mature pastures with little variance
Domestic dog/cat diets (3)
-commercial pet foods
-home made foods
-treats
Domestic horse diets (3)
-forage (pasture/hay)
-cereals or concentrates (starch and energy-rich grains)
-treats (fruits/vegetables)
Production sheep/cattle diets (4)
-pasture
-energy supplements (grains or fodder ie. hay/silage)
-protein and non-protein nitrogen (urea) supplements
-mineral supplements
Water is obtained from three sources
-drinking water
-water present in food
-metabolic water
The non-water nutrition that animals consume is called
Dry matter
3 vital functions of water
-solvent for nutrient transportation and waste excretion
-facilitates enzyme-driven hydrolysis
-regulation of body temperature
organic dry matter is composed of
Carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen
Inorganic dry matter is composed of
Predominately calcium and phosphorus in animals
Simplest form of carbohydrates are
Monosaccharides
Sugar is generally used to describe
Carbohydrates containing fewer than ten monosaccharides rings
Monosaccharides form a
Carbon ring with 1-7 carbon groups
Three groups of carbohydrates
-sugars
-fibres
-starches
Sugars can be ___ for energy
Directly absorbed
Fibres require ____ to access energy
Microbe fermentation
Starches (2)
-long-chain glucose polymers
-broken down into shorter chains before being utilized for energy
Fats are vital to carry
Lipid-soluble vitamins
The major form of energy storage in animals are
Lipids (mainly as fat)
Two main types of lipids found in plants
-structural lipids (found on plant surface)
-storage lipids (found in fruit and seeds)
Two essential dietary fats in mammals are
-linoleic acid
-alpha-linolenic acid
What acid can be slowly synthesized from linoleic acid
Arachidonic acid
Deficiency of linoleic and alpha-linolenic fatty acids can cause (8)
-poor growth
-increased water permeability / consumption
-increased susceptibility to bacterial infection
-capillary fragility
-kidney damage
-decreased myocardial contractility
-decreased ATP synthesis
-potential death
Proteins (4)
-complex organic compounds of high molecular weight
-consists of long chains of amino acids
-contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulphur
-found in all living cells
Amino acids (4)
-produced when proteins are hydrolysed
-have a basic nitrogenous group (NH2) and an acidic carboxyl unit (COOH)
-over 200 amino acids
-20 amino acids commonly found as components of proteins
Proteins and amino acids are in a
Constant state of exchange
Transanimation is the
Process where certain amino acids can be produced from others
There are ___ essential amino acids
10
Essential amino acids have
Carbon skeletons that cannot be transanimated
Essential amino acid of poultry chicks
Glycine
Essential amino acid of cats
Taurine
True or False: Ruminants cannot synthesize all essential amino acids
False. Ruminants utilize the rumen microbe synthesis to supply ALL essential amino acids
Vitamins (4)
-organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
-comprised of a single chemical unit
-required by body in small amounts
-at least 14 vitamins are essential
Water soluble vitamins (6)
-absorbed with water
-enter directly into bloodstream
-absorbed in duodenum and jejunum
-excess excreted in urine
-NOT stored within the body
-risk of toxicity is low
5 types of water soluble vitamins
-B1
-B2
-B6
-B12
-C
Vitamin B1 (4)
-Thiamine
-major function in cellular respiration (Krebs cycle)
-deficiency can occur through low intake or ingestion of thiaminase
-toxicosis is very rare
Defieicneyc of vitamin B1 (Thiamine) can result in (4)
-reduced weight gain
-in coordination
-hypothermia of extremities
-cerebral cortex necrosis
Vitamin B2 (3)
-Riboflavin and Nicotinamide
-major function in cellular respiration as a hydrogen transporter
-toxicosis has not been observed
Deficiency of vitamin B2 (Riboflavin and Nicotinamide) can lead to (3)
-poor growth
-disrupted oestrous activity
-“curled toe paralysis” in chicks
Vitamin B6 Group (3)
-Pyridoxine, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, Folic Acid, and Choline
-major function in digestion (absorption of amino acids) and gene expression (cell response to steroid hormones)
-toxicosis can result in peripheral neuropathy (photosensitivity, nausea)
Deficiency of the vitamin B6 group can lead to (4)
-nerve degeneration (grinding teeth, thrashing legs, seizures)
-haemorrhage in the epicardium (anaemia)
-impaired immune function
-dermatitis and alopecia
A deficiency in vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) in grazing animals is mostly related to
Copper deficiency
Vitamin B12 (4)
-Cobalamin
-major function in providing cellular energy during cellular respiration
-assists in methionine and folic acid metabolism
-toxicosis has not been observed
Deficiency in vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) can lead to (4)
-weight loss
-poor growth
-muscle weakness
-diarrhea
Vitamin C (3)
-Ascorbic Acid
-major function as an antioxidant and involved in a wide range of metabolic functions
-deficiency is rare in most species as they can synthesis Vitamin C from glucose
Scurvy is a deficiency in ___ and causes (4)
-vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
-swollen gums
-muscular weakness
-diarrhea
-poor hair coat
Toxicosis of Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) can result in (3)
-reduced litter size
-reduced vitamin B12
-excessive absorption of iron—> anaemia
5 types of fat soluble vitamins
-A
-D2
-D3
-E
-K
Fat soluble vitamins (3)
-absorbed in duodenum
-stored in various places of the body
-risk of toxicity is higher BUT effect is less serious
Vitamin A is mainly stored in the
Liver
Vitamins K and E are partially stored in the
Liver
Vitamin D is mainly stored in
Fat and muscle tissue
Vitamin A (2)
-Retinol
-major function in low-light vision (precursor for rhodopsin), gene expression, and epithelial tissue formation
Vitamin A (retinol) deficiency can lead to (5)
-night blindness
-poor growth
-reduced fertility
-hyperkeratinisation of the skin
-increased susceptibility to infection (especially respiratory disease)
Vitamin A (retinol) toxicosis can lead to (3)
-teratogenicity (foetal abnormalities)
-loss of skin
-fragile, overgrown bones
Vitamin D (2)
-Calciferol
-important for calcium regulation, cell differentiation, and immune function
Vitamin D deficiency can lead to (2)
-bone disorders (rickets, osteomalacia, osteoporosis)
-teratogenicity (foetal abnormalities)
Toxicosis of vitamin D can lead to (2)
-hypercalcaemia and calcification of soft tissues
-brittle bones due to excessive resorption
Vitamin E (2)
-Tocopherol
-antioxidant and immune function
Vitamin E deficiency can result in (2)
-muscle degeneration
-anaemia, especially in newborns
Toxicosis of Vitamin E can cause
Coagulopathy (bleeding)
Vitamin K (3)
-Phylloquinone, Menaquinone, and Menadione
-major role in coagulation, energy metabolism, and spermatogenesis
-toxicosis is rare
Vitamin K deficiency (2)
-very common (ingestion of anti-coagulant rat baits)
-bleeding disorders, anaemia
Ingestion of anti-coagulant rat baits can lead to
Vitamin K deficiency
5 roles of minerals
-structure (skeleton and teeth)
-acid-base balance
-digestion (maintains acidity of digestive fluids)
-osmotic pressure
-movement
Minerals (3)
-inorganic elements
-found in animal tissues
-essential mineral elements have a metabolic role
2 major essential mineral elements are
-calcium
-phosphorus
3 trace essential mineral elements
-copper
-selenium
-iodine
Minerals and vitamins work
Synergistically to perform similar biochemical functions
2 ways minerals have negative impacts on each other
-competing for binding sites
-bonding together to form unabsorbable complexes
Calcium (4)
-rarely deficient in Queensland pastures
-very low concentration in cereal grains
-can be present in high quantities in some feeds
-major role in structure, muscle function, and blood coagulation
Calcium toxicosis
Rare unless administered IV (can result in nausea, neurological symptoms, cardiac changes, and death)
Calcium deficiency can lead to (3)
-bone disease
-milk fever
-big head in horses
Phosphorus (4)
-often deficient in Queensland pastures, especially during dry weather
-moderate concentration in cereal grains
-major function in structure and energy metabolism
-toxicosis is rare
Phosphorus deficiency can cause (3)
-bone disease
-reproductive abnormalities
-cattle may be seen eating bone material
Copper (4)
-deficiency in some Queensland pastures
-high concentrations in protein meals
-very narrow safety margin
-major role in iron absorption, haemoglobin formation, antioxidant, and pigmentation of wool/hair/feathers
Copper deficiency can lead to (3)
-anaemia
-discoloured and poor quality hair coat
-developmental disease causing neurological disease (swayback)
Copper toxicosis (3)
-RBC haemolysis
-kidney disease
-death
Selenium (3)
-deficient in some Queensland pastures (esp. Lockyer valley)
-very low concentrations in cereal grains
-major role in metabolism, antioxidant, heavy metal chelation (works with Vitamin E to protect against heavy metals)
Selenium toxicosis (5)
-common
-considered more toxic than arsenic
-hair/hoof disease
-weight loss
-sudden death
Selenium deficiency (3)
-liver and pancreatic disease
-reduced fertility
-muscular dystrophy (white muscle disease)
Iodine (2)
-major role in synthesis of thyroid hormones
-toxicosis is rare (results in vomiting/diarrhea)
Iodine deficiency can cause (2)
-goitre (hypertrophy of thyroid gland)
-reproductive abnormalities (reduced fertility, birth of weak/dead young)
digestibility is the
proportion of feed that is NOT excreted in the faeces (ie. is assumed to be absorbed by the animal)
digestibility calculation formula
(weight of feed consumed - weight excreted) / weight of feed consumed
digestibility trials are usually comprised of (3)
-more than one animal
-male animals
-three trial periods lasting 7-10 days each
three trial periods of digestibility trials
- adaption period (gradually introduce new food)
- maintenaince period (fed ONLY experiment diet)
- collection period (intake/output actively measured)
a substance known to be completely indigestible in a trial diet is called a
known concentration
processing is commonly used to
increase digestibility
grains are typically ___ for cattle and ___ for pigs
crushed; ground
chaffing prevents the animal from
selecting more digestible components (ie. it forces the animal to eat everything)
griding forages (2)
-increases rumen transit time
-reduces digestibility
heat treatment is often applied to (2)
-starchy foods
-grains
an example of an enzyme supplement in poultry is
beta-glucanase
more food consumed causes an ___ in rate of passage of ingesta, ___ exposure to digestive enzymes and time of absorption
increase; reducing
gross energy (GE) is the
amount of heat that is produced by complete oxidation of a unit of weight of food
a bomb calorimeter is used to measure
the amount of chemical energy in a food
digestible energy (DE) calculation formula
(gross energy of feed consumed - gross energy excreted) / gross energy of feed consumed
digestible energy is often used as a primary measure for (2)
pigs and horses
metabolizable energy (ME) is the
amount of digestible energy that is utilized by the animal MINUS energy lost in combustible gases and urine
2-5% of gross energy intake is lost in
urine
gases produced in the rumen and hind gut consist almost entirely of
methane (CH4)
net energy (NE) is the
amount of energy retained by the animal after losses in faces/urine/methane and heat production
crude protein is an
estimation of the protein content of food based on the nitrogen content
conversion factor of crude protein is usually
6.25
3 types of forage feeds
-silage
-hay
-grass/legumes
legumes grow in a
symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria
legumes have a (2) compared to grasses
-greater protein and mineral content
-greater drought hardiness
straws consist of the
stems and leaves of cereal crops after the removal of ripe seeds via threshing (barley, oat, wheat)
straws have a low ____ and are very ___
nutritive value; fibrous
silage is material produced by
the controlled fermentation of a crop with high moisture content
haylage refers to
material made in the same fashion as silage, but from a crop with low moisture content and high dry matter content
silage protein is more readily available in the form of (2)
-ammonia nitrogen
-free amino acid nitrogen
cereal (4)
-family Gramineae
-cultivated for their seeds
-carbohydrate concentrates, predominately starch
-includes barley, maize, oats, and wheat
cereals improve (3) and prevent (1)
improve:
-carbohydrate digestibility
-palatability
-protein digestibility
prevent:
-spoilage
when grain is exposed to hot steam for 3-5 min before rolling to soften it is called
steam rolling
when grain is exposed to hot steam for 15-30 min before rolling, producing a flat “flake” it is called
steam flaking
when grain is finely ground, then heated and forced through a barrel to form a long ribbon it is called
extruding
when grain is ground (and often steamed) then shaped into pellets it is called
pelleting
popping is when
corn is exposed to heat
micronizing is when
cereal is heat treated with infrared heat rather than dry heat
passing grain through a flame is called
roasting
the main source of protein in ruminants is
protein produced by rumen microbes from non-protein nitrogen sources (ie. urea and ammonia)
pigs have __ teeth
44
carcass growth of pigs depends on
intake x nutrient density
growing pigs and lactating sows are usually given
free access to nutrition
non-lactating gilts/sows are usually
ration-fed
a “growth check” is when
newly weaned piglets experience a decrease in feed intake
main vitamins for pigs (4)
vitamin A, D, E, K
the rumen is the
major fermenting chamber
the reticulum
collects small pieces of digesta and trasnfers it to omasum
the omasum is where
fluid and electrolyte absorption takes place
the true gastric stomach of ruminants is the
abomasum
most common rearing system in australia for ruminants is
pasture feeding
when checking ruminant faeces, it is important to note (3)
-color
-consistency
-content
horses have ____ teeth
36-44
henneke system is used to
estimate body condition in horses on a scale from 1-9
nuchal or cresty neck scores are used to
indicate equine metabolic syndrome on a scale from 0-5
main vitamins for horses include (3)
vitamins A, D, E
main vitamins for dogs and cats include (12)
-vitamins A, D, E, K, B12
-thiamine, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, niacin, pyridoxine, folic acid, and choline
minimum protein for dogs
-maintenance: 18%
-growth/reproduction: 22.5%
minimum fat for dogs
-maintenance: 5.5%
-growth/reproduction: 8.5%
there is no minimum standard for ____ in dogs and cats
carbohydrates
humanisation is the
desire to feed dogs like a human family member
premiumisation is the
desire to feed dogs the best perceived quality possible
predominant nutrients for cats should be (2)
-protein
-fat
a high carbohydrate diet in cats can
increase the risk of diabetes mellitus
minimum fat for cats
9%
minimum protein for cats
-maintenance: 26%
-growth/reproduction: 30%
dentition of rats/mice (3)
-2 upper and lower incisors
-3 upper and lower molars
-only incisors grow continuously
rats/mice are
omnivores
dentition of guinea pigs (4)
-2 upper and lower incisors
-1 upper and lower premolar
-3 upper and lower molars
-ALL teeth grow continuously
creep feeding is the practice of
offering nutrient dense, highly palatable solid feed during suckling
weaners should be fed
ad libitum until 20-25kg
weaner and grower/finisher rations should be
high in digestible energy and crude protein
growers/finishers should be fed
ad libitum until 45-60kg
dry sows should only be fed ad lib
14 days prior to mating
lactating sows should be fed
ad lib
pregnant sows should have
controlled feed intake based on body condition score
lambs are typically weaned at
12-14 weeks of age
wool growth rate increases with
increased dry matter intake
lactation of dairy cows occurs from
the time of calving for ~305 days
three phases of lactation
Phase 1: 0-4 months post-calving (milk yield per day peaks)
Phase 2: 4-8 months post-calving (nutritional intake peaks, body weight stabilises)
Phase 3: 8-10 months post-calving (lactation drying up, nutritional intake reducing, body weight still increasing)
drying off occurs in the
final 60 days of the year
feed maintenance of horses depends on (3)
-housing
-age
-temperament
resting energy requirements (RER) is the
daily energy intake required by a relaxed animal in a thermoneutral environment
RER =
70 x (BW^0.75)
maintenance energy requirements (MER) is
RER + energy required for exercise, digestion, and absorption of food
weaning of puppies and kittens starts at
3-4 weeks of age
underfeeding predisposes dogs to (3)
-reduced immunity
-poor growth
-poor muscle and skeletal development -
overfeeding predisposes dogs to (2)
-rapid growth
-joint disease
increase in energy demands in bitches does not occur until
4-5 weeks gestation
intake requirements of bitches peaks at
week 3 of lactation
supplemental calcium is ___ recommended during canine pregnancy
never
canine senior diets target (3)
-anti-oxidants for free radical protection
-high quality, easily digestible protein for muscle maintenance
-omega fatty acids for joint protection -
increase in energy demands in queens starts at
early pregnancy
feline senior diets target (4)
-anti-oxidant for free radical protection
-high quality, easily digestible protein for muscle maintenance
-omega fatty acids for joint protection
-phosphorus control for renal care
a major source of economic loss and welfare compromise in pigs is
post-weaning diarrhea (PWD)
post-weaning diarrhea occurs within
10 days of weaning
4 factors contributing to post-weaning diarrhea in pigs
- sudden withdrawal of whole milk
- poor maturation of digestive function
- presence of anti-nutritive factors in post-weaning diets
- role of dietary antigens in creating hypersensitivity reactions
4 ways to control PWD
- restrict intake of feed during early weaning (increase fibre)
- increase fat component in weaner diet
- process feeds to reduce antigenicity (heat-treating, pre-digesting)
- adding pre- and pro-biotics to weaner diets
5 examples of pre- and post-biotics in weaner diets to control PWD
-lactobacillus
-oligosaccharides
-short chain fatty acids
-zinc compounds
-natural clays
waterbelly, urinary stones, or urinary calculi are other names for
urolithiasis in sheeps and goats
prevention of urolithiasis in sheeps and goats (4)
-prevent foraging on high oxalate and silica pastures
-ensure Ca:P ratio is ~ 2:1
-provide roughage of sufficient fibre length
-encourage adequate water intake
grass tetany is commonly seen in
grazing cattle (particularly beef cattle)
any decrease in ___ absorption of the rumen can predispose to grass tetany
magnesium
in horses, inflammation of the metaphyseal growth plate is called
physitis
in horses, osteochondrosis is
disturbance of bone proliferation, maturation, and ossification
development of orthopaedic disease in horses can occur in several ways (2)
-rapid growth rate
-dietary Ca:P imbalance
-high starch diets
Ca:P in horses should be
3:1
gastric ulcers affect a large proportion of ___ horses
performance
lesions of the mucosa of the stomach are called
gastric ulcers
most ulcers (80%) occur in the
non-glandular stomach
7 risk factors for development of gastric ulcers
-fasting
-high-starch rations
-slug feeding
-stabling
-straw roughage
-restricted water access
-transport
continued acid secretion with no buffering from saliva or feed and increasingly watery contents more likely to splash gastric fluid on squamous mucosa is due to
fasting
disturbed feed/water intake is due to
transport
reduced gastric acid dilution is due to
restricted water access
rapid production of VFA and lactic acid + inadequate saliva production + lower calcium is due to
high starch rations
large, infrequent meals in horses is called
slug feeding
damage to gastric epithelium and low calcium/protein is due to
straw roughage
stabling is more commonly associated with
grain feeding and lack of continued access to saliva-inducing roughage
the most common nutritive disorder in dogs/cats is
obesity (40% dogs, 60% cats)
obesity is a risk factor for (6)
-insulin resistance
-arthritis
-pancreatitis
-respiratory disease
-heat intolerance
-renal disease
life expectancy of dogs/cats is directly linked to
body condition (on a 1-9 scale)
3 factors to take into consideration for obesity in dogs/cats
- Patient signalment (neutering, gender, age, breed)
- Environment (exercise, single-dog household)
- Diet (price of food, treats, once-daily feeding, food intake)
weight loss goals in dogs should be
1-2% of body weight per week
weight loss goals in cats should be
no more than 1.5% body weight per week
3 ways to reduce weight in dogs/cats
- pet owner communication/commitment
- appropriate diet/feeding method
- exercise plan
