NS - Performance enhancing substances and methods

Question 1

Dietary supplement

Answer 1

refined products that wouldn’t be confused w/ food. May not have positive nutritional value.
(i.e. amino acid tablet)

Question 2

Testosterone

Answer 2

Primary androgen hormone that interacts w/ skeletal muscle tissue.
Increases in test. levels stimulate protein synthesis.
Secretion occurs primarily in interstitial Leydig cells in testes.

Question 3

Anabolic Steroids

Answer 3

Synthetic derivatives of testosterone.
Typically used in “stacking” regimen (several different drugs simultaneously.
Low doses are effective, thus more is better.
Increases muscle protein synthesis.
Positives effects: increased muscle mass, strength, and athletic performance, and decreased fat mass.
Adverse effects: aggression, arousal, irritability.

Question 4

Test. Precursors (Prohormones)

Answer 4

Precursors of other hormones that increases body’s ability to produce a given specific hormone (most likely test.)
Precursors: androstenedione, androstenedione, and dehydroepiandrosterone [DHEA]).
Have relatively weak androgenic properties compared to test.
Even w/ weak properties, they are banned and don’t offer many enhancements to performance, but may increase risk of negative side effects similar to anabolic steroids.

Question 5

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)

Answer 5

Hormone obtained from placenta of pregnant women.
Increases testicular test. production in men, nearly doubling levels in 4 days.
Mimics luteinizing hormone (pituitary hormone that stimulates Leydig cells in testicles to make test.)
Increases endogenous test levels b/c endogenous levels get suppressed at end of steroid cycle.
Thus, likely used for athletes finishing a cycle looking to continue activations of endogenous test. production.
Little research on adverse effects, but at least pain, swelling, and tenderness from the injection.

Question 6

Insulin

Answer 6

Anabolic hormone recreated by pancreas in response to elevation in blood glucose or specific amino acid (e..g leucine).
Considered anabolic b/c it increases protein synthesis.
Facilitates glucose uptake and amino acids into cell.
Adverse effects: Injection of insulin (i.e bodybuilders) to enhance effects can lead to immediate death, coma, or development of insulin-dependent diabetes.

Question 7

Human Growth Hormone (HGH)

Answer 7

Protein recreated from anterior pituitary gland.
Anabolic due to its stimulation of bone and skeletal. muscle growth, maintaining blood glucose levels, increasing uptake of glucose and amino acids in muscle cells, and stimulating release of fatty acids from fat cells.
Must be injected so it’s not completely metabolized.
Shows in blood tests, not urine.
Many of its actions are mediated through IGF-1.
Adverse effects in youth: giantism, acromegaly (wide bones, arthritis, organ enlargement, metabolic abnormalities.
Adverse effects for adults: diabetes in prone individuals, cardiovascular dysfunction, pain in muscle, joints, organs, hypertension, abnormal growth of organs, accelerated osteoarthritis.

Question 8

Erythropoietin (EPO)

Answer 8

Produced in kidneys and stimulates production of new RBC.
Injections elevate hematocrit and hemoglobin levels, thus enhancing O2-carrying capacity of blood (typically for aerobic endurance athletes).
Adverse effects: increases in RBC numbers increases blood viscosity (thickening of blood), thus increasing risk of blood clotting, elevations of systolic BP, stroke, and cerebral or pulmonary embolism. Dehydration further complicates things. Risk of death increases.
One EPO is injected, stimulus for producing RBC is is no longer under control.

Question 9

Autologous and Homologous blood doping

Answer 9

increases RBC mass to enhance O2 delivery.
A: blood transfusion from one’s own blood.
H: blood from another person w/ same blood type.

Question 10

B-Adrenergic Agonists (B-agonists)

Answer 10

substances chemically related to epinephrine (regulates lipolysis and thermogenesis.
Popular option is bronchodilator Clenbuterol.
Scarce ergogenic potential but has been used to increase lean muscle tissue and decreases subcutaneous fat.
Cycled on and off to avoid b-receptor down-regulation.

Question 11

B-Blockers

Answer 11

Block the B-adrenergic receptors, preventing catecholamines (norepinephrine and epinephrine) from binding.
Ergogenic effect: reduce anxiety and tremors during performance (sports that require steady, controlled movements; i.e. archers or marksmen). May improve adaptations from aerobic endurance training by causing up-regulation of B-receptors.
Adverse effects: ergolytic (reduced performance); can impair cardiovascular response to exercise by reducing maximal HR, O2 consumption, and 10 km race time performance. Associated w/ increased perceived exertion.
Risks of bronchospasm, heart failure, prolonged hypoglycemia, bradycardia, heart block, and intermittent claudication.

Question 12

Essential Amino Acids (EAAs) and Branched Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs)

Answer 12

Not produced in the body and just be obtained through diet.
Include: BCAAs –isoleucine, leucine, valine–, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, theronine, and tryptophan.
High levels found in animal-based foods, leucine also found in plants (i.e. spinach and broccoli).
Ability to stimulate muscle protein synthesis, particularly via the anabolic effect of leucine.
The BCAAs are responsible for increasing muscle protein synthesis.
Leucine is more important regulator of protein synthesis than amount of protein consumed.
No adverse effects.

Question 13

Arginine

Answer 13

Conditional EAA and has crucial roles in nutrition and metabolism.
Required for synthesis of creatine.
Not effective for inducing nitric oxide or muscle blood flow (via vasodilation). No effect on improving endurance performance.
Adverse effects: gastrointestinal distress (nausea, abdominal cramps, diarrhea).

Question 14

B-Hydroxy-B-Methylbutyrate (HMB)

Answer 14

Derivative of leucine.
Most effective for trained individuals participating in a high-intensity, hit-volume resistance training program because of its anti-catabolic effect and suppresses muscle damage.
Most effective for untrained individuals who are beginning a new training program as it reduces soreness.
No adverse effects.

Question 15

B-Alanine

Answer 15

Non-EAA.
Effective as performance-enhancing substance in exercises inducing a high level of lactic-acid (e.g. multiple bouts of HIIT exercises lasting more than 60s.
Is the rate-limiting enzyme for carnosine synthesis
Carnosine: found mainly in fast-twitch (Type II) and can contribute up to 40% of skeletalMBC of H+ during anaerobic, thus lowering pH.
Increasing Caroline levels increases anaerobic performance.
Adverse effects: paresthesia (tingling, prickling, or numbness of a person’s skin). Disappear in 1 hour.

Question 16

Sodium Bicarbonate

Answer 16

antacid; counteracts or neutralizes acid (low pH).
Improves HIIT exercise performance and training via improved MBC.
Dosage about 60-90min before exercise.
Adverse effects: gastrointestinal distress.

Question 17

Muscle Buffering Capacity (MBC)

Answer 17

The ability to regulate H+ concentration in skeletal muscle during HIIT exercise (i.e. repeated sprint, HIIT capacity, anaerobic threshold, training volume).

Question 18

Sodium Citrate

Answer 18

Believed that once in blood, sodium citrate actually breaks down into bicarbonate, thus increasing extracellular pH. More research needs to be done.
Adverse effects: Ingestion of 0.4-0.6 g/kg body mass may cause gastrointestinal distress.

Question 19

L-Carnitine

Answer 19

May enhance recovery following HIIT exercise: decreased pain and muscle damage, decreases markers of metabolic stress.
Synthesized from amino acid lysine and methionine and responsible for transport of fatty acids from cytosol into mitochondria to be oxidized from energy.
Adverse effects: up to 3g daily is tolerable. Needs to be further studied.

Question 20

Creatine

Answer 20

nitrogenous organic compound that is synthesized naturally in the body, mainly by liver (smaller amounts in pancreas and kidneys), and helps supply energy to all cells in the body.
Precursors for creatine synthesis: arginine, glycine, methionine.
98% stored in skeletal muscle.
Effective for increasing maximal strength, power, and lean body mass (some is water) in all populations.
Depletion of CP during HIIT ex. is primary mechanism leading to fatigue.
If muscle CP concentrations could be maintained, the ability to sustain HIIT ex. would be improved; this is the basis for creatine supplementation.
More effective for training than performance.

Question 21

Creatine Supplementation

Answer 21

Reported to increased creatine content of muscles by approx. 20%.
The max amount of creatine that can saturate muscle is 150-160 mmol/kg dry weight.
Typically regimen: Loading dose of 20-25g daily for 5 days OR 0.3g/kg body mass for those that dose relative to body mass, followed by maintenance dose of 2g/day.
No loading: muscle creatine content will still reach similar levels, but it will take longer (~30 days v. 5 days).
Muscle creatine levels will remain elevated for duration of dosing. Will return to baseline after in ~4 weeks after stopping.
1-4.5 pound body mass increase or fat free mass over several weeks or months.
Doesn’t seem to increase various issues (cramping, CV, or GI)

Question 22

Caffeine

Answer 22

Effective form prolonging endurance ex., but its effects on sprint or power performance are less clear.
CNS stimulant similar, but weaker, to amphetamines.
Enhances power production short-duration, HIIT ex.
Doses ranging from 3-9mg/kg BW ~60 minutes before ex. or during prolong ex. have shown enhancements. No benefit above 9mg/kg BW
Tablet form seems to have greater effect than drink.
Pure caffeine has been reported improve aerobic endurance performance by 28%-43%.
Caffeine from food/drink may not be seen or may be reduced compared to pure caffeine.
Adverse effect: GI distress, restlessness, insomnia, tremors, heart arrhythmias, sometimes death (<5g)

Question 23

Pre-workout energy drinks

Answer 23

Effective for increasing resistance training vol. performance and endurance performance, but not ergogenic to improve anaerobic ex.
Ingredients typically include: caffeine (low-mod) and carbs (primary ergogenic nutrients), b-vitamins, tyrosine, and gingko bilbos, among others
Adverse effects: same as caffeine.

Question 24

Ephedrine

Answer 24

Thermogenic supplement works by elevating basal metabolic rate, thus increasing energy expenditure resulting in increased fat loss.
Effective when combined w/ caffeine, is able to improve aerobic performance (greater benefit than either supplement taken alone). Not as effective improving anaerobic.
Adverse effects: nausea, vomiting, psychiatric symptoms like anxiety, mood change, autonomic hyperactivity, palpitations, and sometime death.

Question 25

Citrus Aurantium

Answer 25

Commonly known as “bitter orange”.
Contains synephrine which stimulate specific adrenergic receptors (B-3, not -1 or -2
When combined w/ caffeine and other herbal products, improves ex. time to fatigue (measure of endurance performance).
Adverse effects: vasoconstriction and elevation in BP. However, when ingested alone may not cause any effect on BP.