ES - Apply Knowledge of Psychological Technique Used to Enhance Training and Performance - Motivational Techniques

Question 1

Imagery

Answer 1

cognitive skill in which the athlete creates or recreates an experience in his or her mind.
Ideally uses all senses to create a mental experience of athletic performance.
Includes rehearsing movements, imagining visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory, and even gustatory (taste) cues.

Question 2

Progression of imagery

Answer 2

Athlete may start w/ relatively simple, somewhat familiar visual image. Helps successful practice of technique.
Image can be internal (1st person; sport specific) or external (3rd person; reviewing videos); athlete should choose the most natural perspective.
After vivid visualization, athlete can start interacting w/ object. by moving object around or begin “walk around” in the mind.
Rehearse successful execution of skill during imagine competitive conditions (be realistic with level of success).
Overall, mental imagery allows athletes to prepare for uncertain environments over long periods of time despite minimal real-world competition.

Question 3

Psychological Techniques for Improved Performance (5)

Answer 3

Relaxation techniques to control elevated arousal and anxiety
Imagery
Self-efficacy
Self-talk
Goal setting

Question 4

Relaxation techniques to control elevated arousal and anxiety (4)

Answer 4

Diaphragmatic breathing
Progressive muscular relaxation
Autogenic training
Systematic desensitization

Question 5

Diaphragmatic breathing

Answer 5

i.e. belly breathing
focuses the attention on the progress of breathing to clear the mind and therefore increase concentration.
Athletes should attempt to engage and deep, rhythmic breathing in a relaxed, natural manner.
Has major influence on HR and muscle tension due to feedback mechanisms that link respiratory and cardiac control centers in the brain stem.
Alters autonomic nervous system balance so that increased vagal tone or parasympathetic activity can occur.

Question 6

Performing diaphragmatic breathing

Answer 6

Start in standing position.
Let arms hang loosely and relax neck and shoulders by taking a couple of deep breaths.
Next, relax abdominal muscles so they appear flaccid and begin belly breathes (belly protrudes; place hand on stomach for feedback).

Question 7

Progressive muscular relaxation

Answer 7

Technique by which psychological and physical arousal are self-regulated through the control of skeletal muscle tension.
By going through a series of alternating muscular tensing and relaxing phases, the athlete learns to become aware of somatic tension and how to control it.
Results of PMR are increase in smooth, fluid, or efficient movement as well as an increased ROM around joint.

Question 8

Performing progressive muscular relaxation

Answer 8

Tensing progresses from muscle to muscle until all muscles have been activated.
All tensing should be short duration (10-15s) and maximal followed by complete relaxation.
When athletes first begin using PMR, lethargy can follow. Athletes should practice PMR days before competition to determine its individual impact.

Question 9

Systematic Desensitization

Answer 9

Helps an athlete initially confront or reduce fear.
Combines mental and physical techniques that allow an athlete to replace a fear response to various cues w. a relaxation response.
Teaching the athlete to use a specific cognitive skill-based coping response to control for cognitive arousal (aka, Counter-conditioning).
Prevents cognitive avoidance and counter-conditions a new response (relaxation) to the formerly fear-inducing stimuli.

Question 10

Performing systematic desensitization

Answer 10

Athlete must be reasonably skilled at PMR and mental imagery.
Construct a progression of events and situations that they specifically perceives as fearful (ex. gymnast who suffered serious injury on balance beam may list a series of fearful scenes, proceeding from warming up before the event to actual movement that caused injury).
In relaxed setting, visualize first scene and experience mild degree of anxiety.
At the same time, diaphragmatic breathing, PMR, or another physical relaxation technique is performed.
This technique is practiced until the athlete can hold the image clearly while maintaining a relaxed state.

Question 11

Self-Efficacy

Answer 11

Situationally-specific form of self-confidence, in which, the perception of one’s ability to perform a given task in a specific situation.
A highly self-efficacious person doesn’t doubt their ability to succeed, even when failure is experienced.
It’s thought that if an athlete has necessary skill set and an acceptable level of motivation, then the resulting performance is largely determined by self-efficacy.
Influences people’s choice of activity (whether they have confidence or lack it), effort level in the activity, and how much persistence they’ll have in the face of challenging obstacles.

Question 12

Sources of Self-Efficacy (6)

Answer 12

1. Performance accomplishments - past experiences of success of failure.
2. Vicarious experiences - watching others (modeling).
3. Verbal persuasion - encouragement from self or others
4. Imaginal experience - using imagery to see oneself perform.
5. Physiological states - perception of arousal as facilitative or debilitative.
6. Emotional states - affect or mood.

Question 13

Self-talk

Answer 13

i.e. interpersonal communications
The inner dialogue we have w/ ourselves; what we say to ourselves out loud or in our heads.
Can be positive (you can do this), negative (you suck), or instructional (feet-shoulder width apart), spontaneous or w/ purpose.
Instructional self-talk can be harmful for elite performers, as it may interfere w/ automaticity of the movement.
Athletes should begin by examining their current use of self-talk and its effects on performance. Then modify the self-talk in the appropriate manner.

Question 14

Goal Setting

Answer 14

a process whereby progressively challenging standards of performance are pursued w/ a defined criterion of task performance that increases the likelihood of perceived success.
Those with higher confidence and efficacy generally envision, create, and strive to accomplish more challenging goals.
Systematic goal setting can simultaneously increase psychological development and performance of the athlete.

Question 15

Types of goals (4)

Answer 15

Process
Outcome
Short-term
Long-term

Question 16

Various reason why goal setting affects performance (3)

Answer 16

1. goals direct and athlete’s attention by prioritizing efforts.
2. goals increase effort b/c of the contingency of success on goal attainment.
3. goals increase positive reinforcement through the feedback given to athletes.

Question 17

Process goals

Answer 17

those over whose achievement the athlete has control.
Focus on actions the individual must engage in during performance to execute the skill well.
Success is strongly dependent on effort given by the athlete.
Ex. strength and conditioning; have the athlete focus on strategy for weight reduction (e.g. what the athlete must do on a daily basis, such as aerobic activity and dietary modifications)., thereby increasing a sense of control over actions.

Question 18

Outcome goals

Answer 18

goals over which the athlete has little control; typically, winning is the primary focus.
Generally focus on competitive results of an event (i.e. earning a medal, scoring points, personal bests, being highly ranked).
Accomplishment of outcome goals are contingent not only on individual effort, but on the efforts and abilities of others, something out of the individual’s control.

Question 19

Ex. of Process and Outcome goals in strength and conditioning

Answer 19

Process: emphasizing technique during the power clean Outcome: focusing only on completing the set.

Question 20

Short-term goals

Answer 20

Those that are directly related to current training or competition and are guidelines that can be attained in a relatively short time frame.
Increase chance of success b/c they’re relatively close to the athlete’s present ability level.
Also increase confidence, self-efficacy, and motivation b/c of likelihood of success.
Short-term process and outcome goals counteract the boredom and frustration that are potential side effects of long, tough training regimens.

Question 21

Long-term goals

Answer 21

Goals that overarch the series of linked short-term goals.
Athlete may see more relevance in practice goals if it’s apparent how they help attain the ultimate level of performance.
The athlete may become more aroused psychologically and physiologically during practice by the perception that today’s activity is another step on the ladder to a personal, long-term dream.

Question 22

Specificity of long- and short-term goals example

Answer 22

a specific goal of 25 minutes of continuous running in a HR range of 160-170 beats/mnin is a much more engaging objective than “going out for a run.”
The vague phrasing may be fine of a recreational participant, but is not helpful for a competitive cross-country runner, especially when the goal is to develop physiological capacity.

Question 23

Efficacy of goals for improving athletic performance

Answer 23

lies in the goals relevance to the physical needs of the athlete.
Ex. formulating a series of appropriate goals to enable a 400m runner to decrease their time in the event rests on understanding the physical profile, relevant metabolic pathways, and biomechanical technique to be developed.

Question 24

Guidelines for using goal setting (4)

Answer 24

1. long-term goals and short-term goals are dependent on each other (interdependent).
2. Long-term goals provide a sense of meaningfulness and direction for pursuing short-term goals.
3. The attainment of short-term goals provides a hierarchal sense of mastery and success that builds self-confidence.
4. Athletes should define process goals to focus on elements of their performance over which they have control.

Question 25

Intrinsic motivation and how does it affect the acquisition and performance of motor skills?

Answer 25

Desire to be competent and self-determining.
Athletes are driven b/c of their love for the game and the inherent reward they feel from participation.
Comes from within the athlete and is exhibited regardless of reward or punishment.
Focus on the enjoyment or fun of they experience and generally desire to learn and improve b/c of this love for the behavior in and of itself.

Question 26

Extrinsic motivation and how does it affect the acquisition and performance of motor skills?

Answer 26

Motivation that comes from an external source rather than internal.
ex. awards, trophies, praise, social approval, fear of punishment.
Athletes are rarely completely intrinsic or extrinsic, but show varying degrees along this motivation continuum depending on the activity, their perceptions of competence (success), level of important the activity has, and a host of other variables.

Question 27

Achievement motivation and how does it affect the acquisition and performance of motor skills?

Answer 27

A person’s efforts to master a task, achieve excellence, overcome obstacles, and engage in competition or social comparison.
All things being equal between two athletes, whoever is higher in achievement motivation will be the better athletes b/c they have a better appetite for competition.
Motive to achieve success (MAS): experience pride in achievement and challenge oneself and elevate one’s abilities.
Motive to avoid failure (MAF): desire to protect one’s ego and self-esteem. Avoiding the perception of shame that accompanies failure.

Question 28

MAS and MAF

Answer 28

MAS: capacity to experience pride in one’s accomplishments and characterized by one’s desire to challenge oneself and elevate one’s ability. Intrigued by uncertain or challenging situations, w/ ~50% probability of success. Likely the dominate traits in high level sports.
MAF: avoiding the perception of shame that accompanies failure. Are more comfortable in situations I which it is either very easy to achieve success or so extremely difficult that there would be no expectation of winning.Might reduce effort b/c of fear that challenge is too difficult.

Question 29

Positive reinforcement and how does it affect the acquisition and performance of motor skills?

Answer 29

act of increasing probability of occurrence of a given behavior (target behavior such as correct footwork in basketball, termed an operant) by following it w/ a positive action, object, or event such as praise, decals on helmet, prizes, or awards.

Question 30

Negative reinforcement and how does it affect the acquisition and performance of motor skills?

Answer 30

also increases probability of occurrence of a given operant, but is accomplished through the removal of an act, object, or event that is typically aversive.
Focuses attention on what’s being done correctly.
Ex. a team showed great hustle in practice (i.e. the operant is enthusiasm and hustle), then the coach could announce that no wind sprints would be required at the session’s end.

Question 31

Positive punishment and how does it affect the acquisition and performance of motor skills?

Answer 31

presentation of an act, object, or event following a behavior that could decrease the behavior’s occurrence.
Ex. reprimanding a player after a mistake or making an athlete do push-ups or sprints after a fumble.

Question 32

Negative punishment and how does it affect the acquisition and performance of motor skills?

Answer 32

removal of something valued, could take the form of revoking privileges or playing time (getting benched). Is ineffective to punish athletes for mistakes if they are making the effort to perform correctly.

Question 33

How should positive and negative reinforcement be applied?

Answer 33

Coaches should generally subscribe to a reinforcement strategy to assist athletes in focusing on what they do correctly.
Punishment should be sparingly, as it increases the likelihood that athletes will focus on what they’re doing incorrectly.
Under conditions that promote a narrow focus attention, positive reinforcement aids a focus on task-relevant cues, while punishment floods attentional capacity w/ a predominance of task-irrelevant cues.