Neuropathology Flashcards
Gross changes seen in Alzheimer’s disease
Generalised atrophy
Flattened sulci
Enlarged ventricles
Peptides which make up amyloid plaques in Alzheimer’s disease
Amyloid beta
Protein which amyloid beta is a fragment of
Amyloid-beta precursor protein
Conformation of amyloid plaques
Beta pleated sheets
Enzymes which cause amyloid-beta precursor protein to be cleaved into amyloid plaques in Alzheimer’s disease
Beta secretase
Gamma secretase
Enzyme which prevents the formation of amyloid plaques from amyloid-beta precursor protein
Alpha secretase
Two main subtypes of amyloid plaques
Neuritic plaques
Diffuse plaques
Form of amyloid which is found in neuritic plaques
Fibrils
Cell types found in neuritic plaques
Dystrophic neurites
Microglia and astrocytes at the periphery
Core of neuritic plaques
Dense amyloid core
Stain neurites are best visualised with
Silver stain
Stain of neuritic plaques under Congo red
Apple green birefringent
Component of diffuse plaques
Non-fibrillar extracellular amyloid beta
Main component of neurofibrillary tangles
Hyperphosphorylated tau protein
Purpose of tau protein
Microtubule assembly
Components required to make abnormally phosphorylated tau
Beta amyloid peptide
Cholinergic receptors
Conditions apart from Alzheimer’s disease where neurofibrillary tangles can be seen
Down syndrome
Dementia pugilistica (punch drunk syndrome)
Parkinson’s dementia
Normal aging
Appearance of neurofibrillary tangles on staining
Basophlic
Position of neurofibrillary tangles vs. beta amyloid plaques
Neurofibrillary tangles largely intraneuronal
Amyloid plaques extracellular
Earliest parts of the brain neurofibrillary tangles are seen - not usually associated with clinical symptoms
Entorhinal complex
CA1 field of the hippocampus
Parts of the brain affected by neurofibrillary tangles at the point clinical symptoms are first seen - as well as the entorhinal complex and CA1 region of the hippocampus
Other parts of the hippocampus
Medial temporal lobe
Then hypothalamus and thalamus
Condition caused by the accumulation of amyloid beta in blood vessel walls in the cerebral cortex
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy
Percentage of elderly population without Alzheimer’s disease who have cerebral amyloid angiopathy
30%
Percentage of elderly people with Alzheimer’s disease who have cerebral amyloid angiopathy
90%
Complication of cerebral amyloid angiopathy
Strokes - especially haemorrhagic
Eosinophilic bodies seen in the cytoplasm of neurons in patients with Alzheimer’s disease
Hirano bodies
Shape of Hirano bodies
Rod shaped
Protein involved in Hirano bodies
Actin
Area of the brain where Hirano bodies are often seen
Hippocampal pyramidal cells
Best neuropathological correlate for clinical decline in patients with Alzheimer’s
Number of synapses
Neuropathological marker used to measure the number of synapses in patients with dementia
Antibody to synaptophysin (protein found in presynaptic endings)
Alternative names for Binswanger’s disease
Subcortical vascular dementia
Subcortical arteriosclerotic encephalopathy
Cause of Binswanger’s disease
Multiple small infarctions to the deep layers of white matter in the brain
Clinical features of Binswanger’s disease
Memory issues (not as severe as with Alzheimer’s disease)
Psychomotor retardation
Unsteady, slow gait
Urinary urgency or incontinence
Areas of the brain where neuronal loss is seen the most in Alzheimer’s dementia
Subiculum of the hippocampus
Layers II and IV of the entorhinal cortex
Appearance of Lewy bodies
Spherical
Eosinophilic
Part of the cell Lewy bodies are found
Cytoplasm
Two main types of Lewy bodies
Classical
Cortical
Area of the brain Lewy bodies are found in Parkinson’s disease
Substantia nigra - pars compacta
Areas of the brain Lewy bodies are found in dementia with Lewy bodies
Substantia nigra
Temporal lobe
Cingulate gyrus
Frontal lobes
Differences in appearance between classical (found in the substantia nigra) and cortical Lewy bodies
Classical Lewy bodies are more conspicuous, more eosinophilic and have a halo
Markers which can be used to identify Lewy bodies
Antibody to ubiquitin
Antibody to alpha-synuclein
Protein accumulations found in Lewy bodies
Abnormal alpha-synuclein
Some ubiquitin
Abnormal neurons seen in dementia with Lewy bodies, Parkinson’s disease dementia and occasionally Alzheimer’s dementia
Lewy neurites
Area of the brain where Lewy neurites are most common
CA2/3 region of the hippocampus
Substantia nigra
Diseases associated with alpha-synuclein aggregation
Parkinson’s disease
Dementia with Lewy bodies
Multisystem atrophy
Diseases associated with tau deposits
Alzheimer’s dementia
Frontotemporal dementia
Progressive supranuclear palsy
Most common pathological type of frontal lobe dementia
Frontal lobe degeneration type
Three clinical types of frontotemporal dementia
Behavioural variant FTD
Semantic variant primary progressive aphasia
Non-fluent variant primary progressive aphasia
Features of behavioural variant FTD
Loss of inhibition
Loss of motivation
Repetitive or obsessive behaviours
Features of semantic variant primary progressive aphasia
Loss of vocabulary
Inability to remember what familiar objects are for
Features of non-fluent variant primary progressive aphasia
Different speech - changing grammar, words in the wrong order
Use of shorter sentences
Saying the opposite of what is meant
Retention of ability to know what words mean (in contrast to semantic variant primary progressive aphasia)
Proteins associated with frontotemporal lobar degeneration
Tau
Transactive response DNA binding protein (TDP 43)
Fused in sarcoma protein (FUS)
Macroscopic changes seen in frontotemporal lobar degeneration
Atrophy of frontal and temporal lobes
Focal atrophy with knife-blade appearance
Pathological type of frontotemporal lobar degeneration associated with Pick bodies
Tau type
Shape of Pick bodies
Sphrerical
Protein composing Pick bodies
Tau
Proteins seen aggregated in TDP frontotemporal lobar degeneration
Ubiquitin
TDP-43
Macroscopic changes seen in Huntington’s disease
Shrunken head of caudate
Dilatation of the anterior horns of the lateral ventricles
Three types of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
Sporadic
Familial
Variant
Most common type of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
Sporadic
Lobe generally spared in Alzheimer’s disease
Occipital
Brain area showing particular depigmentation in Alzheimer’s disease
Locus Coeruleus
Area of the brain which degenerates in Alzheimer’s disease leading to lower levels of acetylcholine
Nucleus of Meynert/nucleus basalis magnocellularis
Difference between Lewy bodies and Hirano bodies
Lewy bodies contain ubiquitin
General age of presentation of sporadic CJD
55-65
General age of presentation of variant CJD
25-30
Origin of variant CJD
Infected meat products
Origin on sporadic CJD
Genetic mutation
Duration of disease between onset and death for sporadic CJD
Few months
Duration of disease between onset and death for variant CJD
Year +
Earliest clinical features of sporadic CJD
Neurological signs - cerebellar ataxia, myoclonic jerks
Dementia
Earliest clinical features of variant CJD
Psychiatric and behavioural features
Inheritance pattern of familial CJD
Autosomal dominant
Histological appearance of the grey matter in CJD
Spongiform changes
Round vacuoles in the neuropil
Vacuoles joining to form microcysts
Chromosome where the gene which codes for prion protein is found
20
Abnormal form of prion protein found in CJD
PrPSc
Other parts of the body where PrPSc may be found in CJD
Skeletal muscle
Spleen
Staining used to identify PrPSc in CJD
Immunoperixodase staining
MRI sign seen with variant CJD
Pulvinar sign
EEG changes classically seen with sporadic CJD
Triphasic sharp waves 1-2 per second
Abnormal protein sometimes found in the CSF with CJD
14-3-3
Most common type of CJD where protein 14-3-3 is found
Sporadic
Percentage of classic CJD which is familial
10-15%
Type of lymphocytes which are reduced in HIV infection
CD4+
Cells which are activated by HIV infection and which kill HIV-infected cells
CD8+ cells
Most common psychiatric presentation in patients with AIDS
HIV-related dementia
Second most common psychiatric presentation in patients with AIDS
Depression
Most common cerebral lesion in patients with HIV
Toxoplasmosis
Ventricles enlarged in schizophrenia
Lateral
Part of the lateral ventricle enlarged in schizophrenia
Temporal horn
CT appearance of toxoplasmosis
Ring enhancing lesions +/- mass effect
CT appearance of primary CNS lymphoma associated with HIV
Single (or sometimes multiple) homogenous enhancing lesion
Area of the brain which sees reduced asymmetry in schizophrenia
Planum temporale
Impact of schizophrenia on brain volume
Reduced by up to 5%
Areas of the brain which see reduced cell numbers in schizophrenia
Hippocampus
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
Superior temporal gyrus
Most common functional imaging appearances in schizophrenia
Reduced activation of frontal regions during cognitive tasks
Functional imaging appearances seen during hallucinations in schizophrenia
Increased activation of temporal regions
Common imaging finding in mood disorders seen on T2 weighted images, especially in older people
White matter hyperintensities particularly in the deep subcortical white matter
Areas of the brain where hypoplasia is seen in autism
Cerebellar vermis
Cerebellar hemispheres
Areas of the brain which see degenerative changes in Wernicke’s encephalopathy
Mamillary bodies Hypothalamus Mediodorsal thalamus Colliculi Midbrain tegmentum
Area of the brain which shows depigmentation in Parkinson’s disease
Substantia nigra
Abnormal protein seen in Alzheimer’s disease which correlates best to clinical severity
Neurofibrillary tangles
CSF finding which can indicate worse prognosis in those with mild cognitive impairment
Increased tau to amyloid ratio
Age of patients with mood disorders where white matter hyperintensities are more often seen
Elderly patients
Physical disease which white matter hyperintensities can be associated with
Vascular disease
Type of dysarthria characterised by explosive and forceful, but slow speech
Spastic dysrathria
Type of dysarthria characterised by a breathy, nasal voice
Flaccid dysarthria
Type of dysarthria characterised by slow, quiet, tremulous speech
Hypokinetic dysarthria
Type of dysarthria characterised by a variable rate and inappropriate stoppages, and a strained quality
Hyperkinetic dysarthria
Type of dysarthria characterised by rapid, monotone, slurred speech
Ataxic dysarthria
Type of dysarthria associated with pseudobulbar palsy
Spastic dysarthria
Type of dysarthria associated with spastic hemiplegia
Spastic dysarthria
Type of dysarthria associated with myasthenia gravis
Flaccid dysarthria
Type of dysarthria associated with Parkinson’s disease
Hypokinetic dysarthria
Type of dysarthria associated with Huntington’s disease
Hyperkinetic dysarthria
Type of dysarthria associated with Syndenham’s chorea
Hyperkinetic dysarthria
Type of dysarthria associated with tardive dyskinesia
Hyperkinetic dysarthria
Type of dysarthria associated with Friedreich’s ataxia
Ataxic dysarthria
Type of dysarthria associated with alcohol abuse
Ataxic dysarthria
Lesion area associated with spastic dysarthria
Upper motor neuron
Lesion area associated with flaccid dysarthria
Lower motor neuron
Lesion area associated with hypokinetic dysarthria
Extrapyramidal
Lesion area associated with hyperkinetic dysarthria
Extrapyramidal
Lesion area associated with ataxic dysarthria
Cerebellar
Structure where degeneration is found in Huntington’s disease
Striatum
Lobe associated with aura in epilepsy
Temporal
Lobe associated with dysphoric, euphoric, or other strong emotional feelings
Temporal
Structures involved in OCD
Lentiform nucleus (putamen and globus pallidus) Caudate nucleus
Structure where lesions are associated with hemiballismus
Subthalamus
Structure where lesions are associated with dystonia, athetosis and chorea
Corpus striatum
Structure where lesions are associated with Parkinsonism
Substantia nigra
Symptom caused by damage to the lingual gyrus
Visual snow
Structure where lesions are associated with nominal aphasia
Angular gyrus
Structure most severely damaged in early Alzheimer’s dementia
Entorhinal cortex
Lobe initially affected in Alzheimer’s disease
Temporal lobe
Hemispheric lesion associated with aphasia
Left
Hemispheric lesion associated with right-left disorientation
Left
Hemispheric lesion associated with finger agnosia
Left
Hemispheric lesion associated with aphasic dysgraphia
Left
Hemispheric lesion associated with number dyscalculia
Left
Hemispheric lesion associated with visuospatial defects
Right
Hemispheric lesion associated with anosognosia
Right
Hemispheric lesion associated with neglect
Right
Hemispheric lesion associated with constructional apraxia
Right
Hemispheric lesion associated with dysgraphia or dyscalculia associated with spatial issues
Right
Hemispheric lesion associated with dressing apraxia
Right
Hemispheric lesion associated with aprosodia (inability to convey or interpret emotional elements of speech)
Right
Hemispheric lesion associated with alexia (inability to read)
Left
Hemispheric lesion associated with colour anomia
Left
Hemispheric lesion associated with Broca’s aphasia
Left
Hemispheric lesion associated with Wernicke’s aphasia
Left
Symptoms seen in Gerstmann syndrome
Dysgraphia
Dyscalculia
Finger agnosia
Right left disorientation
Hemispheric lesion seen in Gerstmann syndrome
Left
Hemispheric lesion seen in prosopagnosia
Right
Receptor changes seen after ECT in patients with depression
Reduced beta receptors
Increased noradrenaline turnover
Reduced 5HT2 receptors
Features associated with Klüver-Bucy syndrome
Hyperorality Hypersexuality Docility Visual agnosia Dietary changes
Area of brain affected in Klüver-Bucy syndrome
Bilateral medial temporal lobes
Amygdala
Common causes of Klüver-Bucy syndrome
Herpes Late stage Alzheimer's disease Frontotemporal dementia Trauma Bilateral temporal lobe infarction
Description of pulvinar sign
Bilateral high signal of the medial thalamus
Abnormal structure in dementia pugilistica
Septum pellucidum
Abnormality seen in the septum pellucidum in dementia pugilistica
Fenestrated cavum septum pellucidum
Distribution of tau accumulation seen in dementia pugilistica
Irregular, focal perivascular distribution
At the depths of cortical sulci
Macroscopic features of schizophrenia
Enlarged ventricles
Reduction in grey matter volume and total brain volume
Reduced asymmetry of the planum temporale
Macroscopic feature associated with first generation antipsychotic exposure
Enlargement of the caudate
Movement disorder associated with damage to the subthalamic nucleus in the basal ganglia
Hemiballismus
Features of hemiballismus
Involuntary violent movements of the arms and legs
Macroscopic features of multisystem atrophy
Pale substantia nigra
Greenish putamen
Atrophied putamen
Cerebellar atrophy
Microscopic features of multisystem atrophy
Papp-Lantos bodies
Areas of the brain which show increased glucose metabolism in OCD
Orbitofrontal area Caudate Thalamus Prefrontal cortex Anterior cingulate
Three categories the Boston Classification uses to divide aphasias
Fluency
Repetition
Comprehension
Most severe type of aphasia where there is non-fluent speech, lack of comprehension, and lack of repetition
Global aphasia
Non-speech features usually present with global aphasia
Inability to read and write
Hemiplegia
Hemisensory loss and hemianopia
Area of damage for global aphasia
Entire L perisylvian region - often MCA occlusion
Type of aphasia where speech is not fluent and repetition is impaired, but comprehension is intact
Broca’s aphasia
Broca’s area in Brodmann areas
44 and 45
Area Broca’s area is found in
L Frontal lobe
Blood vessel which supplies Broca’s area
Superior division of MCA
Type of aphasia where the speech is fluent but comprehension and repetition are impaired
Wernicke’s aphasia
Area of the brain Wernicke’s area is found
L superior temporal gyrus
Brodmann area which is Wernicke’s area
22
Blood vessel which supplies Wernicke’s area
Inferior division of MCA
Type of aphasia where the speech is fluent and comprehension is intact but there is specific deficit in repetition
Conduction aphasia
Area of the brain damaged in conduction aphasia
Arcuate fasciculus which connects Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area
Blood vessel which supplies the arcuate fasciculus
Inferior or superior division of the MCA
Type of aphasia where fluency, repetition and comprehension are all largely intact and the biggest issue is word finding
Anomic aphasia
Areas of the brain often damaged in anomic aphasia
Less well localised than most aphasias
Often temporal-parietal area, sometimes angular gyrus
Type of aphasia where comprehension is impaired but sentences can be repeated verbatim or read aloud. May be fluent or non-fluent depending on if it is sensory or motor subtype
Transcortical aphasia
Subtype of transcortical aphasia with fluent speech, impaired comprehension and intact repetition
Sensory transcortical aphasia
Subtype of transcortical aphasia with non-fluent speech, impaired comprehension and intact repetition
Motor transcortical aphasia
Loss of reading ability with preserved writing ability - but inability to read words they have written after a break
Alexia without agraphia
Most common brain areas affected in alexia without agraphia
Angular gyrus - often by simultaneous lesions of the L occipital lobe and the splenium of corpus callosum
Medical causes of alexia without agraphia
L PCA stroke
Tumour
MS
Loss of reading and writing ability but intact speech and oral language understanding - sometimes with word finding difficulty
Alexia with agraphia
Most common area of lesion causing alexia with agraphia
Angular gyrus - L inferior parietal lobe
Type of aphasia which is similar to Wernicke’s aphasia but reading comprehension is intact
Auditory verbal agnosia/pure word deafness
Dopamine abnormality causing positive symptoms in schizophrenia
Increased dopaminergic activity in the striatum
Dopamine activity causing negative symptoms in schizophrenia
Decreased dopaminergic activity in the frontal lobe
Disease classically associated with an abnormal tonsillar biopsy
Variant CJD
Alternative name for dementia pugilistica
Chronic traumatic encephalopathy
Type of neurodegenerative condition which can occur immediately after a single traumatic brain injury
Dementia pugilistica
Conditions in which kuru plaques are seen
Kuru
Gerstmann-Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome
CJD
Condition in which Verocay bodies are seen
Schwannoma
Disease in which haematoxylin bodies are seen
SLE
Conditions in which zebra bodies are seen
Niemann-Pick disease
Tay-Sachs disease
Mucopolysaccharides
Conditions in which Schaumann bodies are seen
Sarcoidosis
Berylliosis
Diseases in which Mallory bodies are seen
Alcoholic hepatitis and cirrhosis
Wilson’s disease
PBC
Diseases in which asteroid bodies are seen
Sarcoidosis
Berylliosis
Areas of the brain which have been shown to be hyperactive in depression
Amygdala
Anterior cingulate cortex
Area of the brain which has been shown to be underactive in depression in some studies, and overactive in others
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
Important prion diseases
CJD
Kuru
Gerstman-Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome
Fatal familial insomnia
Disease balloon cells are associated with
Pick’s disease
Macroscopic features of Parkinson’s disease
Pallor of the substantia nigra in the midbrain
Pallor of the locus coeruleus in the pons
Condition associated with reductions in interneurons in cortical layer II of the prefrontal cortex
Schizophrenia
Area of low perfusion seen in SPECT scan of Alzheimer’s dementia
Medial temporal areas
Parietal areas
Cellular distribution of Lewy bodies - extracellular vs. intracellular
Intracellular
Response of Parkinsonian features of multisystem atrophy to levodopa
Poor response
Macroscopic features of progressive supranuclear palsy
Pallor of the substantia nigra with sparing of the locus coeruleus - pallor of both seen in Parkinson’s
Mild midbrain atrophy
Superior cerebellar peduncle atrophy
Discolouration of the dentate nucleus
Normal form of prion protein
PrPC
Enzyme which can break down PrPC but nor PrPSc
Protease
Main structure of PrPSc
Beta sheet
Method PrPSc has of spreading
It can change nearby PrPC into PrPSc
Structure of PrPC
Alpha helix
Frontal lobe hemisphere more associated with depression when damaged
Left
Frontal lobe hemisphere more associated with disinhibition, aggression and impulsivity if damaged
Right
Cells affected in Guillain Barré syndrome
Schwann cells
Cell type that makes up an acoustic neuroma
Schwann cells
Artery usually affected in a stroke causing amaurosis fugax
Retinal/opthalmic artery
Areas of brain damage associated with Wernicke and Korsakoff syndrome
Medial thalamus
Mamillary bodies of hypothalamus
Area of lesion to cause an ipsilateral monocular visual loss
Optic nerve
Area of lesion to cause a bitemporal hemianopia
Optic chiasm
Area of lesion to cause a contralateral homonymous hemianopia without macular sparing
Optic tract
Area of lesion to cause a contralateral homonymous inferior quadrantanopia
Parietal (upper) optic radiation
Area of lesion to cause a contralateral homonymous superior quadrantanopia
Temporal (lower) optic radiation
Area of lesion to cause a contralateral homonymous hemianopia with macular sparing
Occipital visual cortex
Target sites for deep brain stimulation in Parkinson’s disease
Subthalamic nucleus
Globus pallidus interna
Number of dopamine transporters in patients with ADHD compared to healthy controls
Fewer
Effect of psychostimulant treatment on dopamine transporter numbers in patients with ADHD
Increased
Neuropathological features of presymptomatic HIV infection
Lymphocytic leptomeningitis Perivascular lymphocytic cuffing Parenchymal T and B lymphocyte infilatration Gliosis Microglial activation Axonal damage
Neuropathological feature of presymptomatic HIV infection which is also found in HIV negative IV drug users as well as in trauma, inflammation and hypoxia
Axonal damage
Most common organic cause of anxiety
Hypoglycaemia
Lobe associated with Jacksonian seizures
Left frontal lobe
Structure which when divided leads to a ‘split brain’
Corpus callosum
Most common opportunistic CNS infection in patients with AIDS
Toxoplasma gondii (toxoplasmic encephalitis)
Area of the brain which shows the pulvinar sign in variant CJD
Thalamus
Subtype of opioid receptors associated with depression
Sigma
Changes in neurotransmitters seen in Alzheimer’s disease
Decreased acetylcholine
Increased glutamate
Main mechanism of spread of HIV to the brain
Infected macrophages
Structures involved in Wernicke’s encephalopathy
Mamillary bodies
Thalamic nuclei
Walls of the third ventricle
fMRI appearances in keeping with a patient experiencing auditory hallucinations
Increased activity at the temporal cortex
Mamillary body abnormality seen in Wernicke Korsakoff syndrome
Decreased mamillary body transketolase activity
Area of the brain showing increased dopamine release in patients with schizophrenia on the amphetamine challenge test
Striatum
Neural process where deficiency is seen in delusions of control
Sensory prediction
Area of the brain which shows hypoplasia in autism
Cerebellar vermis
Impact of Parkinson’s disease on D2 receptor sensitivity
Increased D2 receptor sensitivity at the basal ganglia
Part of the brain most associated with prion disease
Cerebellum
Area of the brain targeted in transcranial magnetic stimulation treatment for treatment resistant depression
Left frontal lobe
Earliest histological change seen in Alzheimer’s disease
Amyloid-mediated damage
Area of the brain showing hypoperfusion in Lewy body dementia
Occipito-parietal
Disease associated with the hummingbird sign on sagittal imaging - midbrain atrophy
Progressive supranuclear palsy
Prion disease which does not show spongiform change
Fatal familial insomnia
CNS cell type most susceptible to HIV infection
Microglia
Characteristics of medial prefrontal syndrome
Poverty of speech
Lack of spontaneous behaviour
Characteristics of orbitofrontal syndrome
Explosive outbursts
Poor impulse control
Characteristics of dorsolateral prefrontal syndrome
Executive dysfunction
Diminished planning
Alternative name for medial prefrontal syndrome
Apathetic type/pseudo depressive type prefrontal syndrome
Alternative name for orbitofrontal syndrome
Disinhibited type/pseudopsychopathic type frontal syndrome
Alternative name for dorsolateral prefrontal syndrome
Dysexecutive/disorganised type prefrontal syndrome
Structural changes associated with normal pressure hydrocephalus
Enlarged lateral and third ventricles out of proportion to rest of the brain
Characteristic structural change seen in autism
Hypoplasia cerebellar vermis
Neurotransmitter deficient in Lewy Body dementia and Parkinson’s disease dementia
Acetylcholine
Areas of the brain which see hypoperfusion in schizophrenia
Frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex
Anterior and medial cingulate gyri
Parietal lobes
Areas of the brain which see hyperperfusion in schizophrenia
Cerebellum
Brainstem
Thalamus
Hyperintensities seen on imaging in patients with depression
Periventricular
Deep white matter
Thalamic
Striatal
Areas of decreased volume seen on imaging of patients with depression
Frontal
Basal ganglia
Areas of decreased metabolism seen on imaging of patients with depression
Prefrontal cortex
Anterior cingulate
Amygdala
Finding seen on imaging of patients with depression which suggests psychomotor retardation
Elevated D2 binding
Areas of loss of grey matter seen on imaging of patients with schizophrenia
Insular cortex
Anterior cingulate
Medial temporal lobe
Area of poor activation seen on fMRI imaging of patients with schizophrenia
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
Area of brain with low DAA seen on MR spectroscopy of patients with schizophrenia
Prefrontal cortex
Diffusion tensor imaging findings seen on imaging of patients with schizophrenia
Widespread reduction
Area where there is loss of volume seen on imaging of patients with Alzheimer’s
Temporal lobe especially the hippocampus
Area of decreased activation on fMRI imaging of patients with Alzheimer’s
Parieto-temporal
Neuropathological changes seen in patients with depression
Enlarged lateral ventricles Enlarged amygdala Reduced hippocampal volume Reduced basal ganglia volume Reduced grey matter in the prefrontal cortex
Areas shown to have altered blood flow on SPECT scan among patients with depression
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
Basal ganglia
Anterior cingulate
Amygdala
Area of abnormal blood flow seen in SPECT scans of patients with depression which is likely to relate to the cognitive dysfunction seen
Prefrontal cortex
Area of abnormal blood flow seen in SPECT scans of patients with depression which is likely to relate to impaired attention and abnormal emotional processing
Anterior cingulate
Area of abnormal blood flow seen in SPECT scans of patients with depression which is likely to relate to abnormal emotional processing
Amygdala
Area of abnormal blood flow seen in SPECT scans of patients with depression which is likely to relate to psychomotor retardation
Basal ganglia
Altered metabolism seen in OCD
Increased metabolism in the orbitofrontal area, caudate, thalamus, prefrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate
Site of brain lesion causing alexia without agraphia, colour agnosia, and visual object agnosia
Dominant occipital lobe
Site of brain lesion causing profound amnesia
Bilateral temporal lobe
Site of brain lesion causing visuospatial agnosia, prosopagnosia, and complex visual hallucinations
Non-dominant occipital lobe
Site of brain lesion causing apraxias, prosopagnosia, and neglect of one side of the body (hemisomatognosia)
Non-dominant parietal lobe
Part of the brain which sees increased blood flow when a patient is experiencing hallucinations and delusions
Left medial temporal cortex
