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Anatomy (BIO 201) > Nervous System And Brain > Flashcards

Nervous System And Brain Flashcards

1
Q

What are the three layers of the meninges?

A

Dura mater, Arachnoid mater, Pia mater

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2
Q

What is the function of the dura mater?

A

Outermost tough membrane covering neural tissue

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3
Q

How many layers does the dura mater have?

A

Two layers

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4
Q

What are the two layers of the dura mater?

A

Outer Periosteal layer, Inner Meningeal layer

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5
Q

What 3 supportive structures are formed by the dura mater?

A

Falx cerebri, Falx cerebelli, Tentorium cerebelli

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6
Q

What does the falx cerebri do?

A

Divides the brain into left and right hemispheres

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7
Q

What does the falx cerebelli do?

A

Divides the brain into left and right cerebellar hemispheres

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8
Q

What is the role of the tentorium cerebelli?

A

Separates the cerebellum from the cerebrum

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9
Q

What type of layer is the arachnoid mater?

A

Filamentous layer

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10
Q

What is the pia mater?

A

Thin vascular layer adhering to the contours of the brain

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11
Q

What fills all meningeal spaces?

A

All spaces are filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

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12
Q

Where is the epidural space located?

A

Between the brain and the skull (dura mater + bone).

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13
Q

What is the subdural space?

A

The space between the dura mater and arachnoid mater.

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14
Q

Where is the subarachnoid space found?

A

Between the arachnoid and pia mater.

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15
Q

What is cerebrospinal fluid?

A

A clear liquid similar to blood plasma.

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16
Q

Where does cerebrospinal fluid fill?

A

It fills ventricles, canals, and the subarachnoid space.

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17
Q

What are the functions of cerebrospinal fluid?

A
  1. Buoyancy (Support weight)
  2. Protection
  3. Chemical stability, removes waste.
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18
Q

What is the function of the choroid plexus

A

Made of ependymal cells and secrete and circulate cerebral spinal fluid

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19
Q

Where does CSF flow begin?

A

Choroid Plexus in lateral Ventricles

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20
Q

What connects the lateral ventricles to the third ventricle?

A

Interventricular foramen

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21
Q

What connects the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle?

A

Cerebral aqueduct

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22
Q

Where does the fourth ventricle feed into

A

Central Canal / Subarachnoid space

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23
Q

What regulates the Blood-Brain Barrier?

A

The Blood-Brain Barrier is tightly joined and highly regulated by Astrocytes.

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24
Q

What types of molecules are permeable through the Blood-Brain Barrier?

A

Lipid soluble molecules (such as alcohol, nicotine, and anesthetics)

Small molecules (gases and glucose)

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25
Q

What types of molecules are impermeable to the Blood-Brain Barrier?

A

Large molecules such as proteins and antibiotics are impermeable.

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26
Q

What is the location of the Medulla Oblongata?

A

Anterior ventral to the 4th ventricle and cerebellum, superior to the spinal cord, inferior to the pons.

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27
Q

What types of tracts are found in the Medulla Oblongata?

A

Ascending and descending tracts.

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28
Q

What vital reflexes are controlled by the Medulla Oblongata?

A

Cardiac function, breathing, and vasomotor control (blood vessel diameter)

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29
Q

What system does the Medulla Oblongata contain part of?

A

The Reticular Activating System (RAS).

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30
Q

What is the function of the reticular activating system (RAS)?

A

Regulate sleep and waking up (conscious attention)

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31
Q

What is the function of the reticular activating system (RAS)?

A

Regulate sleep and waking up (conscious attention)

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32
Q

What is the location of the Pons?

A

Interior to the 4th ventricle and cerebellum, superior to the medulla, and inferior to the midbrain.

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33
Q

What is the function of the Pons?

A

Connection pathway between the cerebellum and cerebrum.

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34
Q

What is the location of the Midbrain?

A

Anterior to the 4th ventricle, anterior to the cerebellum, and superior to the pons.

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35
Q

What are the components of the Midbrain?

A

Cerebral Peduncles and Corpora Quadrigemina.

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36
Q

Function of cerebral peduncles

A

Voluntary motor fibers pass through here to skeletal muscle.

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37
Q

Function of corpora quadrigemina and its 2 parts

A

Superior colliculi (visual reflexes)
Inferior colliculi (auditory reflexes)

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38
Q

What is the Diencephalon?

A

The Diencephalon is a part of the brain that includes structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus.

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39
Q

Where is the Thalamus located?

A

The Thalamus is located deep in the cerebrum, superior to the hypothalamus, surrounding the third ventricle.

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40
Q

What is the function of the Thalamus?

A

Nearly all sensory information travels through the Thalamus to the cerebral cortex, except for smell.

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41
Q

Where is the Hypothalamus located?

A

The Hypothalamus is located deep in the cerebrum, superior to the thalamus, surrounding the third ventricle.

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42
Q

What does the Hypothalamus control?

A

The Hypothalamus controls the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS), including sympathetic and parasympathetic responses, as well as the endocrine system.

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43
Q

What hormones does the Hypothalamus secrete?

A

The Hypothalamus secretes Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin.

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44
Q

What is the function of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)?

A

ADH helps retain water in the body.

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45
Q

What is the function of Oxytocin?

A

Oxytocin is involved in labor contractions.

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46
Q

What is the function of the pineal gland

A

Produce melatonin

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47
Q

What is the primary function of the Nervous System?

A

Works to maintain homeostasis

The Nervous System is the master controlling and communicating system of the body.

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48
Q

What are the three overlapping functions of the Nervous System?

A
  1. Sensory input: Detects internal and external changes.
  2. Integration: Processes and interprets information.
  3. Motor Output: Activates effector organs to produce a response.
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49
Q

What are the two principal parts of the Nervous System?

A
  1. Central Nervous System (CNS): Comprises the brain and spinal cord, serving as the integration and control center.
  2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Comprises nerves that branch off the brain and spinal cord.
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50
Q

What are the components of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

A

The PNS includes spinal nerves (to and from the spinal cord) and cranial nerves (to and from the brain).

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51
Q

What is a ganglion?

A

A ganglion is a swelling of cell bodies.

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52
Q

What is the role of sensory neurons?

A

Sensory (afferent) neurons detect changes in the body or external environment and transmit information away from receptors into the brain or spinal cord.

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53
Q

What is the function of interneurons?

A

Interneurons (association neurons) lie between sensory and motor pathways in the CNS, processing, storing, and retrieving information.

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54
Q

What do motor (efferent) neurons do?

A

Motor (efferent) neurons send signals out to muscles and gland cells, which carry out responses called effectors.

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55
Q

What are the divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System?

A

The Peripheral Nervous System has two divisions: Afferent Division (Sensory) and Efferent Division (Motor).

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56
Q

What does the Afferent Division (Sensory) do?

A

The Afferent Division conveys impulses to the CNS, including somatic sensory info from the skin and visceral info from internal organs.

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57
Q

What does the Efferent Division (Motor) do?

A

The Efferent Division conveys impulses away from the CNS, including somatic signals to skeletal muscles and visceral signals through the autonomic nervous system.

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58
Q

What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system?

A

The autonomic nervous system has two branches: Parasympathetic and Sympathetic.

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59
Q

What are the properties of neurons?

A

excitability (responding to changes),

conductivity (producing traveling electrical signals),

secretion (releasing neurotransmitters when an electrical signal reaches the end of a nerve causes secretion

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60
Q

Define nuclei

A

Cluster of cell bodies in CNS

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61
Q

Define ganglia

A

Cluster of cell bodies and PNS

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62
Q

Define Tracts

A

Bundles of neuron processes in CNS

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63
Q

Define nerves

A

Bundles of neuron processes in PNS

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64
Q

What is a neuron process and what are the two types

A

An arm process that extends from the cell body.
Dendrites and axons

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65
Q

Explain axons vs dendrites

A

Axons Send or transmit info to the next cell

Dendrites receive information and transmit it to the cell body

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66
Q

Explain axons

A

Send or transmit info to the next cell

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67
Q

Define axon collaterals and axon terminals, and axon hillock

A

Axon collateral- axon with branches
Axon terminals- distal ends
Axon hillock- where nerve transmission action potential starts

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68
Q

Define axon collaterals and axon terminals, and axon hillock

A

Axon collateral- axon with branches
Axon terminals- distal ends
Axon hillock- where nerve transmission action potential starts

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69
Q

What are multipolar neurons?

A

neurons with many dendrites, one cell body, and one axon.

70
Q

What are bipolar neurons and where are they found?

A

Bipolar neurons are for special senses such as vision and smell.

They have one dendrite, one cell body, and one axon.

Examples include olfactory neurons, retina, and ear neurons.

71
Q

What are unipolar neurons?

A

sensory neurons where the branch splits into an axon and a dendrite.

transmit sensory information from skin and organs to spinal cord.

72
Q

What are neuroglia?

A

support cells in the nervous system.

73
Q

What are Schwann cells?

A

only in the axons of the PNS.

They create myelin (myelin sheaths) and are associated with white matter (adipose tissue)

74
Q

Nodes of ranvier

A

Space between Schwann cell

75
Q

Function of myelin

A

Increase speed of action potential(conduction)

76
Q

What factors determine nerve signal speed?

A

diameter of the fiber
If myelinated.

77
Q

What are A fibers?

A

A fibers have the fastest transmission

large and myelinated.

78
Q

What are B fibers?

A

B fibers have medium transmission speed.

They are small and myelinated.

79
Q

What are C fibers?

A

C fibers have the slowest transmission speed

They are small and unmyelinated.

80
Q

What are the functions of slow signals?

A

supply the stomach and dilate the pupil.

81
Q

What are the functions of fast signals?

A

supply skeletal muscles and sensory signals for vision and balance.

82
Q

What are astrocytes?

A

Astrocytes are neuroglia in CNS

maintain the Blood Brain Barrier (BBB).

83
Q

What are microglial cells?

A

Microglial cells are the immune cells of the CNS.

84
Q

What are ependymal cells?

A

Neuroglia of CNS
synthesize and circulate Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF).

85
Q

What are oligodendrocytes?

A

myelinate axons in the CNS.

86
Q

What is voltage?

A

Voltage is a measure of potential energy generated by separated charge.

87
Q

What is current?

A

Current is the flow of ions between two points.

88
Q

What is resistance?

A

Resistance is the hindrance to charge flow.

89
Q

What is an insulator?

A

An insulator is a substance with high electrical resistance.

90
Q

What is a conductor?

A

A conductor is a substance with low electrical resistance.

91
Q

What are the main types of ion channels?

A

leakage (nongated) channels
gated channels.

92
Q

What are leakage channels?

A

channels that are always open.

93
Q

What happens in gated channels?

A

Proteins change shape to open/close the channel.

94
Q

What are the three types of gated channels?

A

chemically-gated,
voltage-gated,
mechanically-gated.

95
Q

What are chemically gated channels?

A

Chemically gated channels (ligand-gated) only open when binding to a specific chemical.

96
Q

What are voltage-gated channels?

A

Channels open in response to changes in membrane potential.

97
Q

What are mechanically gated channels?

A

channels open/close in response to sensory receptors

98
Q

What is the resting membrane potential of an axon inside the cell membrane

99
Q

Is the inside of an axon positive or negative charged

100
Q

Is the outside of an axon membrane positive or negative charged

101
Q

How is the resting membrane potential generated?

A

Difference of ion makeup inside vs outside the membrane

Difference in plasma membrane permeability

102
Q

Explain ionic composition of ECF of an Axon

A

ECF has higher conc. of NA+

103
Q

Explain ionic composition of ICF of an Axon

A

Higher conc. of K+

104
Q

Explain sodium- potassium pump

A

Stabilize resting membrane potential
3Na+ out while 2K+ in

105
Q

What are the two types of signals produced by changes in RMP?

A

Graded Potentials and Action Potentials

Action Potentials operate over long distances in axons.

106
Q

What is depolarization?

A

A decrease in membrane potential towards zero, making the inside of the membrane more positive.

107
Q

What is hyperpolarization?

A

An increase in membrane potential away from zero, making the inside of the membrane more negative.

108
Q

What is repolarization?

A

The process of the membrane returning to resting membrane potential after depolarization.

109
Q

Explain graded potentials?

A

Doesnt reach threshold
Short lived, localized and graded signals
Decremental: stimulus weakens the farther it spreads.

110
Q

What are action potentials (APs)?

A

The principal way neurons send signals, occurring only in muscle cells and axons of neurons.
Signals don’t decay with distance.

111
Q

Characteristics of action potentials

A

All or none law- voltage gates open or not
Don’t weaken with distance
Irreversible

112
Q

What is threshold

A

Membrane voltage that must be reached during depolarization in order to generate action potential
-55mV

113
Q

Steps to generate action potential

A
  1. Resting state- channels closed
  2. Depolarization- Na+ voltage channels open and Na+ into cell until -55mV then all Na+ channels open.
  3. Repolarization- K+ channel open and K+ leaves (membrane more negative)
  4. Hyperpolarization- K+ overshoot and excessive efflux (more negative than RMP)
114
Q

Absolute refractory vs relative refractory

A

Absolute refractory period- no stimulus will trigger action potential

Relative refractory period- stronger than normal stimulus can trigger new action potential

115
Q

Continuous conduction

A

Unmyelinated cells,
slow conduction
Sequential opening of an Na+ channels

116
Q

Salfactory conduction

A

Melanated cells
Leapfrog between depolarizing nodes of Ranvier

117
Q

Axodendritic vs axosomatic connections

A

Axodendritic- between axon terminals and dendrites
Axosomatic- between axon terminals and soma (cell body)

118
Q

What is a synapse

A

Junctions that mediate information transfer

119
Q

What is the chemical synapse?

A

Release chemical neurotransmitters

Electrical impulse change to chemical across synapse, then back into electrical

120
Q

What are the steps for information transfer across a chemical synapse

A
  1. AP arrive at axon terminal
  2. Ca+ channels open and Ca+ into axon terminals
    3.Ca+ cause synaptic vesicle to release NT
  3. NT across synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on postsynaptic membrane
  4. Ion channels open, generate AP
  5. NT effects terminated
121
Q

What are the three ways of terminating effects of a neurotransmitter?

A

Reuptake by astrocyte or axon terminal
Degradation by enzyme
Diffusion away

122
Q

IPSP VS EPSP

A

IPSP- inhibit graded potential. Makes membrane more negative

EPSP- excitatory graded potential. Could be AP if strong enough

Both haven’t reach threshold
Both types of postsynaptic potentials

123
Q

Temporal summation

A

Rapid fire impulses of EPSP’s that summate to reach AP

124
Q

Spatial summation

A

Multiple presynaptic neurons fire at the same time to summate and reach AP

125
Q

What are the two types of circus in neurons?

A

Divergent circuit- 1 neuron talks to many

Converging circuit - many neuron talk to 1

126
Q

Explain the spinal cord

A

Information highway between brain and body
Functions : conduction, locomotion, reflexes

127
Q

Cauda equina

A

Nerve roots that exit the spinal cord at L2 and bring nerves down to the sacrum and coccyx

128
Q

What is Meninges

A

3 fibrous layers enclosing spinal cord
Outer layer- dura mater
Middle layer- Arachnoid mater
Inner layer- Pia mater

129
Q

Gray vs white matter

A

Gray- unmylelinated, synapse junction found here. Synapses happens here

White- Myelinated, surround gray matter. Information travel

130
Q

DAVE

A

Dorsal
Afferent
Ventral
Efferent

131
Q

SAME

A

Sensory
Afferent
Motor
Efferent

132
Q

What information is the Dorsal horn of the vertebra associated with

A

Afferent sensory information

133
Q

What information is the ventral horn of the vertebra associated with

A

Motor efferent information

134
Q

What kind of information does that mixed spinal nerve contain

A

Dorsal and ventral roots, bring sensory and motor information

135
Q

Ascending tracts

A

Afferent sensory info sent to brain

136
Q

Descending tracts

A

Efferent motor info sent to body

137
Q

Explain the spinal reflex pathway

A

1.Receptor- site of stimulus
2.Sensory Afferent neuron- Afferent impulse to CNS
3. Spinal cord / integration center(brain)
4. Motor Efferent neuron- efferent impulse from brain to organ
5. Effector- muscle or gland response to impulse

138
Q

What are the 2 types of reflexes

A

Somatic reflex- activate skeletal muscle

Autonomic (visceral) reflex- activate visceral effectors ( smooth/cardiac muscle or glands)

139
Q

Monosynaptic reflex

A

2 neurons 1 synapse
Stretch reflexes

140
Q

Polysnyaptic reflex

A

1 neuron many synapses

141
Q

Polysnyaptic reflex

A

1 neuron many synapses

142
Q

What are interneurons?

A

Interneurons are nerves that communicate sensory information to motor neurons during reflex actions.

They are located in the gray matter of the spinal cord.

143
Q

What are the two kinds of interneurons?

A

The two kinds of interneurons are ipsilateral and contralateral.

Ipsilateral interneurons are involved in the withdrawal or flexor reflex, while contralateral interneurons are involved in the crossed extensor reflex.

144
Q

What is the function of ipsilateral interneurons?

A

Ipsilateral interneurons facilitate the body’s response to painful stimuli on the same side as the stimulus.

This is known as the withdrawal or flexor reflex.

145
Q

What is the function of contralateral interneurons?

A

Contralateral interneurons are involved in the crossed extensor reflex, which coordinates the body’s response to stimuli on opposite sides.

146
Q

What triggers the Flexor (withdrawal) Reflex?

A

Itpainful stimulus, causing automatic withdrawal of the threatened body part.
Polysynaptic reflex: many muscles used to withdrawal

147
Q

What is the Crossed Extensor Reflex?

A

The Crossed Extensor Reflex occurs with flexor reflexes in weight-bearing limbs to maintain balance.

Example: Stepping on a nail.

148
Q

How many pairs of spinal nerves and how do they lay on the vertebra

A

31 pairs
Cervical nerves above vertebra
C8 is transition
Thoracic nerves below vertebra

149
Q

Which way do sensory Afferent nerves travel?

A

Only toward CNS

150
Q

Which way do motor efferent nerves travel

A

Only away from CNS

151
Q

Which way do motor efferent nerves travel

A

Only away from CNS

152
Q

Perineurium, endoneurium, endoneurium, fascicle

153
Q

What does the Dorsal Ramus innervate?

A

The Dorsal Ramus innervates the skin and muscles of the back.

154
Q

What does the Ventral Ramus innervate?

A

The Ventral Ramus innervates everything else from head to toe, including the trunk and limbs.

155
Q

What are nerve plexuses?

A

Nerve plexuses involve Ventral Ramus/Rami that branch and merge repeatedly to form four nerve plexuses.

156
Q

What are the four nerve plexuses?

A

The four nerve plexuses are:
1. Cervical plexus
2. Brachial plexus
3. Lumbar plexus
4. Sacral plexus.

157
Q

What is the function of the Ventral Ramus in nerve plexuses?

A

The Ventral Ramus enters the plexus and leaves as ‘Nerves’.

158
Q

How do fibers behave within a plexus?

A

Within a plexus, fibers crisscross so that each branch contains fibers from several different spinal nerves.

159
Q

What nerves associated with cervical plexus

160
Q

What nerves associated with brachial plexus

161
Q

What nerves associated with lumbar plexus

162
Q

What nerves associated with sacral plexus

163
Q

Cervical plexus

A

C1-C5
Inner care skin of neck, back of head, shoulders
Phrenic nerve - motor & sensory nerve of diaphragm

164
Q

Brachial plexus

A

C5-T1
Inner gate upper limbs
Musckocutaneous nerve- bicep skin of forearm
Median nerve- forearm, thumb
Ulnar nerve- forearm pinky, ring
Radial nerve- extensor muscles

165
Q

Lumbar plexus

A

L1-L4
Innervate thigh, abdominal wall, psoas muscle
Femoral nerve- quads and skin of anterior thigh, medial surface of leg

166
Q

Lumbar plexus

A

L1-L4
Innervate thigh, abdominal wall, psoas muscle
Femoral nerve- quads and skin of anterior thigh, medial surface of leg

167
Q

Sacral plexus

A

L4-S4
Innervate butt, lower limb pelvis, perineum
Sciatic nerve- Composed of tibial and common fibular nerve. Leg, foot, hamstring

168
Q

Dermatome

A

Areas of the skin innervated by cutaneous branches of single spinal nerve

169
Q

What parts of the brain are gray matter

A

Basal nuclei
Cerebral cortex
Limbic system

170
Q

What makes up the white matter of the cerebrum

A

Projection fibers
Association fibers
Commissural fibers

Anatomy (BIO 201) (16 decks)

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