Module 08: Respiratory System Flashcards
This system consists of the structures used to acquire oxygen (0,) and remove carbon dioxide (CO) from the blood.
Respiratory System
This is required for the body’s cells to synthesize the chemical energy molecule, ATP.
Oxygen
This is the= by-product of ATP production and must be removed from the blood. Otherwise, increased levels of this, will lower the pH of the blood. The blood pH must be maintained within relatively narrow limits to maintain homeostasis.
Carbon Dioxide
This encloses the chamber for air inspiration. Although air can be inspired through the mouth.
External Nose
This is a cleaning, warming, and humidifying chamber for inspired air.
Nasal Cavity
This is commonly called the throat. It serves as a shared passageway for food and air.
Pharynx
This is frequently called the voice box. Its rigid structure helps keep the airway constantly open, or patent
Larynx
This is commonly known as the windpipe. It serves as an air-cleaning tube to funnel inspired air to each lung.
Trachea
This is a labyrinth of air tubes and a complex network of air sacs, called alveoli, and capillaries
Lungs
The air sacs are separated by walls of connective tissue containing both __________________- fibers. Each air sac is the site of gas exchange between the air and the blood.
collagenous and elastic
This is critical for homeostasis and has two (2) broad aspects known as ventilation and respiration.
Respiration or Breathing
This is simply movement of air into and out of the lungs (atmosphere to the lungs)
ventilation
This is the diffusion of gases across cell (lungs to the cells)
respiration
This type of respiration pertains to the movement of gases between atmospheric air in the lungs and the blood. This is also when oxygen moves out of the alveoli to the blood and the carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and joins the air of the alveoli.
External Respiration
This type of respiration pertains to the movement of gases between the blood and the body’s cells.. This is when the gas exchanges with the tissues involves the exit of the oxygen from the blood to the cells, while the carbon dioxide exit from the cells and enter the blood.
Internal Respiration
This region of the respiratory system includes the structures from the nose to the larynx
Upper respiratory tract
This region of the respiratory system includes the structures from the trachea through the alveoli in the lungs.
Lower respiratory tract
This zone encompasses the structures from the nose to the smallest air tubes within the lungs and is strictly for ventilation.
Conducting Zone
This zone is solely within the lungs and includes some specialized small air tubes and the alveoli. This is where gas exchange occurs.
Respiratory zone
What are the four (4) simultaneous processes?
(1) Ventilation
(2) External Respiration
(3) Gas transport
(4) Internal Respiration
This is what we more commonly refer to as breathing. Air moves into and out of the respiratory passages.
Ventilation
In this, at the terminal portion of the air tubes, are tiny air sacs called alveoli. Oxygen moves out of the alveolar air and into the blood. At the same time, CO, diffuses out of the blood and joins the air in the alveoli.
External Respiration
This process refers to the system of carbon dioxide and O, travelling in the blood to and from cells.
Gas Exchange
This process pertains to the gas exchange with the tissues that involves the exit of O, from the blood into cells, while Co, exits cells to enter the blood.
Internal Respiration
How is the process of respiration related to cellular metabolism, or cellular respiration?
Breathing provides the O, needed in cellular respiration to make ATP from glucose. Breathing also rids the body of potentially toxic CO, which is produced during cellular respiration.
The upper respiratory tract consists of what?
(1) external nose,
(2) nasal cavity,
(3) the pharynx (throat), and
(4) the larynx.
The lower respiratory tract consists of what?
(1) trachea,
(2) bronchi, and
(3) lungs
What is the function of the respiratory system?
(1) Regulation of blood pH. The respiratory system can alter blood pH by changing blood CO, levels.
(2) Production of chemical mediators. The lungs produce an enzyme called angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), which is an important component of blood pressure regulation (dis- cussed in chapter 18).
(3) Voice production. Air moving past the vocal folds makes sound and speech possible. greater impacted by the sinuses
(4) Olfaction. The sensation of smell occurs when airborne molecules are drawn into the nasal cavity (discussed in chapter 9).
(5) Protection. The respiratory system provides protection against some microorganisms by preventing them from entering the body and removing them from respiratory surfaces.
This is the visible structure that forms a prominent feature of the face. The largest part of the external nose is composed of hyaline cartilage plates. However the bridge of the nose, which is where eyeglasses would rest, consists of bone.
external nose
This is the open chamber inside the nose where air first enters the respiratory system. This is where air intake portion of the respiratory system happens. It is here where the majority of the warming, cleaning, and humidifying of air happens.
Nasal cavity
The nasal cavity begins at the anterior external openings called the ___________.
Nares or nostrils
The nasal cavity extends to posterior openings into the pharynx. These openings are called ___________. Serves as wind turbine and churns air passing through the nasal cavity.
Nasal choanae
This is the floor of the nasal cavity, which separates it from the oral cavity in the mouth.
Hard palate
This thrives with the hard palate and is in charge of warming and humidifying inspired air
Mucous Membrane
This is the anatomical structure or a wall of tissue that separates the cavity in left and right halves.
nasal septum (The anterior part of the nasal septum is composed of cartilage, while the posterior part consists of bone.)
This occurs when the septum bulges to one side and is a common cause of snoring
Deviated Nasal Septum
These are the three lateral bony ridges that used to be named the turbinate bones because they act as “wind turbines,” helping the air churn through the nasal cavity (nasal congestion)
Concha
These are located within the superior and inferior meatuses,
openings from the various paranasal sinuses
This is located within the nasal cavity that is responsible for tear drainage from the surface of the eye (see chapter 9). Provides humidity and warmth from the air.
Nasocrimal Duct
This is the inflammation of the mucous membrane of a sinus, especially one or more of the paranasal sinuses. Viral infections, such as the common cold, can cause mucous membranes to become inflamed and swollen and to produce excess mucus.
Sinusitis
How do you treat sinusitis?
Treatment of sinusitis consists of taking antibiotics to kill the bacteria, taking decongestants to promote sinus drainage, drinking fluids to maintain hydration, and inhaling steam to keep nasal passages moist.
What are the functions of the nasal cavity?
(1) Serves as a passageway for air. The nasal cavity remains open even when the mouth is full of food.
(2) Cleans the air. The nasal cavity is lined with hairs, which trap some of the large particles of dust in the air.
(3) Humidifies and warms the air. Moisture is added to the air as it passes through the nasal cavity.
(4) Contains the olfactory epithelium. The olfactory epithelium, the sensory organ for smell, is located in the most superior part of the nasal cavity (see chapter 9).
(5) Helps determine voice sound. The nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses are resonating chambers for speech. For example, most people know immediately when you have a cold because your voice sounds different.
These increase the surface area of the nasal cavity and make airflow more turbulent thereby increasing the likelihood that air will come into contact with the mucous membrane
The nasal septum and nasal conchae
What kind of epithelium lines the mucous membrane
pseudostratified ciliates columnar epithelium with goblet cells
This is the part of the mucous membrane that secretes mucus which traps debris in the air.
Goblet cells
This is part of the mucous membrane which sweeps the mucus posteriorly to the pharynx, where it is swallowed and eliminated by the acidic secretions of the stomach.
Cilia
What are the two sources of moisture from the nose?
(a) the mucous epithelium and
(b) tears that drain into the nasal cavity through the nasolacrimal duct.
This is the common opening of both the digestive and the respiratory systems. This receives air from the nasal cavity and receives air, food, and drink from the oral cavity.
The pharynx or throat,
What are the three regions of the pharynx?
(1) the nasopharynx,
(2) the oropharynx, and
(3) the laryngopharynx
This is the most superior portion of the pharynx. It is immediately posterior to the nasal cavity. Specifically, it is a continuation of the nasal cavity from the choanae and is superior to the soft palate that houses the pharyngeal tonsils
Nasopharynx
This is an incomplete partition composed of muscle and connective tissue. It separates the nasopharynx from the oropharynx. It also prevents swallowed materials from entering the nasopharynx and nasal cavity.
Soft palate
This is the extension of the soft palate. Helps the gag reflex.
Uvula
This is a part of the nasopharynx and is in charge of the equalizing air pressure between the atmosphere and the tympanic membrane
Auditory tubules
This is located in the posterior wall of the nasopharynx, which helps defend the body against infection
pharyngeal tonsil, or adenoids
This is the middle portion of the pharynx. It is immediately posterior to the mouth and begins at the soft palate. From there, it descends to the superior portion of the larynx. This is also where air, food, and drink all pass through Hoses the palatine and lingual tonsils.
oropharynx
These line the oropharynx and protects it against abrasion.
Squamous epithelium
What are the two (2) groups of tonsils?
(1) palatine tonsils and
(2) the lingual tonsil
This is commonly known as the voice box. It is located in the anterior part of the laryngopharynx and extends from the base of the tongue to the trachea
larynx
The larynx is held in place by membranes and muscles superior to the ____________.
hyoid bone
How many cartilages does the rigid wall of the larynx have?
Nine, where six of the nine cartilages are paired, and three are unpaired.
This cartilage is the largest of the cartilages. It is a single shield-shaped piece of cartilage, which is also known as the Adam’s apple.
Thyroid cartilage (shield)
This cartilage forms the base of the larynx. It is a single piece of cartilage upon which the other cartilages rest.
Cricoid cartilage - ring shaped
This is a a single piece of cartilage that is attached to the thyroid cartilage and projects superiorly. It is a freely movable flap and is constructed of elastic cartilage rather than hyaline cartilage. It helps divert food away from the trachea opening during swallowing works with the pharynx.
Epiglottis
These cartilages articulate with the superior border on the posterior of the cricoid cartilage.
Paired Arytenoid cartilages (ladle-shaped)
These cartilages are attached to the superior tips of the arytenoid cartilages, found superior of the arytenoid and posterior to the cuneiform.
Paired Corniculate cartilages (horn-shaped)
These cartilages are contained in a mucous membrane anterior to the corniculate cartilages.
Cuneiform cartilages (wedge-shaped)
What ligaments does the voice box contain that is involved in speech?
(1) the vestibular folds and
(2) the vocal folds.
These are the superior pair of ligaments of the larynx that is involved in speech
vestibular folds, or false vocal cords
These are the inferior pair of ligaments of the larynx that is involved in speech
vocal folds, or true vocal cords,
This condition is known as the inflammation of the vocal folds and can lead to the loss of voice.
Laryngitis
What are the four (4) main functions?
- Maintains an open passageway for air movements
- Prevents swallowed materials from entering the larynx and lower respiratory tract
- Produces sound for speech
- Protects the lower respiratory tract from foreign materials
How does the vocal fold produce sound?
The vocal folds are the primary source of sound production. Air moving past the vocal folds causes them to vibrate and produce sound. The force of air moving past the vocal folds determines sound and the frequency determines the pitch (frequency and pitch are directly proportional)
What is the importance of the vestibular and vocal folds in terms of digestion?
The vestibular and vocal folds provide the most important method for preventing swallowed materials from entering the larynx. During swallowing, food passes over the epiglottis toward the esophagus and the vestibular and vocal folds move together medially, closing the glottis.
This is commonly known as the windpipe. It allows air to flow into the lungs. This is also a membranous tube attached to the larynx and consists of dense regular connective tissue and smooth muscle
Trachea
These are C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilages that support the trachea and prevent it from collapsing. And are incomplete circles with the thickest portion of cartilage at the anterior wall of the trachea
Tracheal rings
This contains an elastic ligamentous membrane and bundles of smooth muscle in the trachea.
Devoid of cartilage
This can narrow the diameter of the trachea by contracting, which aids in coughing. This also causes air to move more forcefully through the trachea, helping to expel mucus and foreign objects during coughing.
Smooth Muscle
What is the length and inside diameter of the trachea?
12 mm and 10 to 12 cm respectively
This lies immediately posterior to the cartilage-free posterior wall of the trachea.
Esophagus
What happens to the trachea of smokers
The tracheal epithelium becomes moist stratified squamous epithelium that lacks cilia and goblet cells.
These are divided by the trachea wherein each of which extends to the lungs..
Bronchi (main bronchi, or primary bronchi: sing. bronchus: windpipe)
At the location where the trachea divides into the two main bronchi is a ridge of cartilage called the ____________. This is an important landmark for reading x-rays.
carina
This reflex is stimulated when foreign matter is inspired to the level of the carina
powerful cough reflex
This consists of the trachea and the network of air tubes in the lungs
tracheobronchial tree
These are divided from the left and right main bronchus and continue getting smaller until they terminate in microscopic tubes and sacs.
Smaller bronchi
This bronchi larger in diameter and more directly in line with the trachea than the left main bronchus.
Right Bronchus
This lines the air passageways and functions as a mucus-cilia escalator, trapping debris from the air and moving it to the larynx.
ciliated epithelium
This arise directly from the main bronchi. In this, the C-shaped cartilage rings are replaced with cartilage plates. Smooth muscle forms a layer between the cartilage and mucous membrane. These are lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, which slowly changes as the tubes get smaller and smaller. Supplies lobe
Lobar bronchi or secondary bronchi
How many lobar bronchi are in the left lung?
two
How many lobar bronchi are in the right lung?
three
These supply subdivisions within each lung lobe, which are called bronchopulmonary segments. As the bronchi become smaller, the cartilage becomes sparse, and smooth muscle becomes more abundant.
segmental bronchi, or tertiary bronchi,
These are the subdivisions supplied by the segmental bronchi, or tertiary bronchi,
bronchopulmonary segments
These arise from ns of bronchioles. Their smooth muscle layer is prominent and are lined with ciliated simple cuboidal epithelium.
Terminal Bronchioles
This occurs when the smooth muscle relaxes, making the bronchiole diameter larger.
Bronchodilation
This occurs when the smooth muscle contracts, making the bronchiole diameter smaller
Bronchoconstriction
This occurs when the flow of air decreases when the resistance to airflow is increased by conditions that reduce the diameter of the respiratory passageways. The resistance to airflow is proportional to the diameter of a tube.
Vasoconstriction
This medication help counteract the effects of an asthma attack by promoting smooth muscle relaxation in the walls of terminal bronchioles, so that air can flow more freely.
albuterol
This is where the external respiration transpires. These are characterized as hollow cavities and small, air- filled chambers from the terminal bronchioles where the air and the blood come into close contact with each other.
Alveoli
These bronchioles have a few attached alveoli. As these divide they become smaller and a number of attached alveoli increases.
Respiratory bronchioles
These ducts arise from the respiratory bronchioles. These are like long, branching hallways with many open doorways. The “doorways” open into alveoli. Eventually, the number of alveoli becomes so large that the wall of this becomes just a series of alveoli.
Alveolar ducts
These are chambers connected to two
or more alveoli at the end of an alveolar duct.
Alveolar sacs
The tissue surrounding the alveoli contains _________________. which allow the alveoli to expand during inspiration and recoil during expiration.
Elastic fibers
What happens when the terminal bronchiole branches?
A terminal bronchiole branches to form respiratory bronchioles, which give rise to alveolar ducts. Alveoli connect to the alveolar ducts and respiratory bronchioles. The alveolar ducts end as two or three alveolar sacs. during expiration
How many alveoli is in the 2 lungs?
Approximately 300 million alveoli are in the two lungs.
What is the average diameter of the alveolus?
The average diameter of an alveolus is approximately 250 μm, and its wall is extremely thin.
These cells form 90% of the alveolar surface. Most of the gas exchange between alveolar air and the blood takes place through these cells.
thin squamous epithelial cells
These are are round or cube-shaped secretory cells that produce surfactant, which makes it easier for the alveoli to expand during inspiration. This is a mixture of lipoprotein and reduces surface tension to prevent lung collapse
Surfactant-secreting cells
This is formed by the alveolar walls and the surrounding pulmonary capillaries. This is also the location of external respiration. In other words, it is where O, enters the blood and CO, exits the blood.
respiratory membrane
What are the structures of the respiratory membrane?
- The alveolar cell layer
- An interstitial space between the alveolar layer and the capillary layer
- The capillary endothelial layer
(where each of the three components are secreted fluids and basement membranes)
What are the layers of the respiratory membrane?
(1) A thin layer of alveolar fluid
(2) The alveolar epithelium, which is a single layer of simple squamous epithelium
(3) The basement membrane of the alveolar epithelium
(4) A thin interstitial space
(5) The basement membrane of the capillary endothelium
(6) The capillary endothelium, which is a single layer of simple squamous cells
The thoracic wall consists of what?
(1) thoracic vertebrae,
(2) ribs,
(3) costal cartilages,
(4) sternum, and
(5) associated muscles
This is the space enclosed by the thoracic wall and the diaphragm.
thoracic cavity
These are the primary organs of respiration. Based on their volume, they are among the largest organs of the body. Each of these is conical in shape, and extends from the diaphragm to a point approximately 2.5 cm superior to the clavicle.
Lungs
The portion of the lungs in contact with the diaphragm is the ______.
base
This lung extends above the clavicle
apex
The right lung is larger than the left and weighs an average of _________, whereas the left lung weighs an average of ________.
620g; 560 g.
This is an indentation on the medial surface of the lung. This is where structures, such as the main bronchus, blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels, enter or exit the lung (known as the root of the lung)
hilum (damage in this can cause a siadh or diabetic insipidus)
All the structures passing through the hilum are referred to as the “_______________”
root of the lung.
Each lung lobe is supplied by a ____________.
lobar bronchus
How many lobes does the right and left lung contain?
3 and 2 respectively
The left lung also has a medial indentation called the ____________. Provides the room of the heart wherein 90% is occupied in the heart and only 10 inches is located in the right lung.
cardiac notch
This structural arrangement provides room for the heart to lie between the lungs. The lung lobes are further subdivided into ____________. These are separated from each other by connective tissue partitions, which are not visible as surface fissures.
bronchopulmonary segments
Each bronchopulmonary segment is supplied by the ____________.
segmental bronchi.
How many bronchopulmonary segments in each right and lung?
10 bronchopulmonary segments in the right lung (3 in superior lobe, 2 in middle lobe, 5 in inferior lobe) and 9 segments on the left (4 in upper lobe, 5 in lower lobe).
The bronchopulmonary segments are even further subdivided into __________by partial walls of connective tissue.
Lobule
What supplies each lobule?
Bronchioles.
This is the blood that has passed through the lungs and picked up O and blood that has passed through the tissues
oxygenated blood
The diaphragm contracts, increasing the superior-inferior dimension of the thoracic cavity. and released some of its O, is called ____________.
deoxygenated blood
What are the two (2) blood flow routes in the lungs?
(1) blood flow to the alveoli and
(2) blood flow to the tissues of the bronchial tree.
Explain the major route of blood flow route in the lungs?
The major route takes deoxygenated blood to the alveoli in the lungs, where it is oxygenated. To get to the alveoli, the deoxygenated blood flows through pulmonary arteries to pulmonary capillaries. In the capillaries, the blood becomes oxygenated and returns to the heart through pulmonary veins
Explain the second route of blood flow route in the lungs?
The second route takes oxygenated blood to the tissues of the bronchi down to the respiratory bronchioles.
What are the two lymphatic supply of the lungs?
(1) the superficial lymphatic vessels and
(2) the deep lymphatic vessels.
These lymphatic vessels are deep to the connective tissue that surrounds each lung, called the visceral pleura. These vessels drain lymph from the superficial lung tissue and the visceral pleura.
superficial lymphatic vessels
These lymphatic vessels follow the bronchi. These vessels drain lymph from the bronchi and associated connective tissues.
deep lymphatic vessels
This is the connective tissue that surrounds each lung,
visceral pleura
Both the superficial and deep lymphatic vessels exit the lung at the ______________.
hilum
These cells within the lungs phagocytize debris and other foreign materials from inspired air and move them to the lymphatic vessels
Phagocytic cells
These primarily serve as a way to remove harmful substances from the lung tissue,
lymphatic vessels
The right lung is divided into three lobes by the ____________________.
horizontal and oblique fissures.
The left lung is divided into two lobes by the __________________.
oblique fissure
These are lined with a serous membrane. Each one of this houses the lung. The most common site for common fluid accumulation.
The two pleural cavities in the thoracic cavity. (in this patients can manifest the pleurisy)
This is the membrane that covers the inner thoracic wall.
serous membrane
The the superior surface of the diaphragm, and the mediastinum is called the ____________________-.
parietal pleura.
At the hilum, the parietal pleura is continuous with the _____________, which covers the surface of the lung. The lymph is being drained from the bronchi to the associated connective tissues and exits via the hilum.
visceral pleura
What are the two primary aspects of ventilation?
(1) actions of the muscles of respiration and
(2) air pressure gradients.
The function of this is to change the volume of the thoracic cavity, which allows for air to flow into and out of the lungs.
Muscles of respiration
These muscles act to increase the volume of the thoracic cavity.
Muscles of inspiration
What are the different muscles of inspiration?
(1) diaphragm,
(2) external intercostals,
(3) pectoralis minor, and
(4) scalene muscles.
These muscles act to decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity by depressing the ribs and sternum.
Muscles of expiration
What are the different muscles of expiration?
(1) internal intercostals and
(2) transverse thoracis,
What is the function of the muscles of inspiration and expiration?
The primary function of these muscles is to stiffen the thoracic wall by contracting at the same time. In this way, they pre- vent the thoracic cage from collapsing inward during inspiration.
Upon contraction, this is responsible for approximately two-thirds of the thoracic volume increase.
Downward movement of the diaphragm
This part of the diaphragm or dome attaches to the inner circumference of the inferior thoracic cage
base
The top of the dome is a flat sheet of connective tissue called the ___________________.
central tendon
What happens during inspiration?
(1) The contraction of the diaphragm causes the central tendon to move downward. There is very little change in the overall shape of the diaphragm.
(2) This downward movement is facilitated by relaxation of the abdominal muscles, which moves the abdominal organs out of the way. However, as the depth of inspiration increases, the abdominal organs prevent the central tendon from moving downward.
(3) The remaining muscles of inspiration, such as the external intercostals, increase thoracic volume by elevating the ribs. As the ribs are elevated, the costal cartilages allow lateral rib movement and lateral expansion of the thoracic cavity.
(4) The ribs slope downward from the vertebrae to the sternum, and elevation of the ribs also increases the front-to-back dimension of the thoracic cavity.
What happens during expiration?
(1) During expiration, the thoracic cavity volume decreases. During quiet breathing, expiration is a passive process due to significant amounts of elastic tissue in the thorax wall and the lungs.
(2) When tension is removed, the thorax wall and the lungs spring back into a smaller, relaxed state.
(3) In addition, the diaphragm relaxes, which causes it to move upward.
(4) Also, the external intercostals relax and the ribs move downward.
(5) Contractions of abdominal muscles also cause the thoracic cavity volume to decrease and push the abdominal organs upward into the diaphragm, which moves it superiorly.
What happens during labored inspiration?
(1) During labored inspiration, more air moves into the lungs because all of the inspiratory muscles are active.
(2) During labored expiration, more air moves out of the lungs due to the forceful contraction of the internal intercostals and the abdominal muscles.
(3) This produces a more rapid and greater decrease in thoracic volume than would be produced by the passive recoil of the thorax and lungs.
What is the relationship pressure and air volume?
Thus, upon inspiration, the air pressure within the thoracic cavity decreases while the volume increases. Conversely, upon expiration, the air pressure within the thoracic cavity increases because the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases.
What is the difference of the Pressure Gradients and Airflow?
During inspiration, air flows into the lungs down its pressure gradient. During expiration, air flows out of the lungs down its pressure gradient.
This by atmospheric pressure-the combined force of all the gases that make up the air we breathe.
Pressure Gradient
How does air move?
Air moves from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure.
What is the relationship between pressure and flow rate?
If the pressure difference decreases, the flow rate decreases.
This is the process of measuring volumes of air that move into and out of the respiratory system,
Spirometry
This is the device used to measure these pulmonary volumes
Spirometer
This is the amount of air that can be forcefully expired after a normal expiration (approximately 1100 mL at rest).
Expiratory reserve volume
This is the normal volume of in air inspired and expired with each breath. At rest, quiet breathing results in a tidal volume of approximately 500 mL.
Tidal Volume
This is the amount of air that can be inspired forcefully after a normal inspiration (approximately 3000 mL. at rest).
Inspiratory reserve volume
What happens to the tidal volume when you are active?
The tidal volume increases when a person is more active. Because the maximum volume of the respiratory system does not change from moment to moment, an increase in tidal volume causes a decrease in the inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes.
These are the sum of two or more pulmonary volumes
Pulmonary capacities
This is the tidal volume plus the inspiratory reserve volume. It is the amount of air a person can inspire maximally after a normal expiration (approximately 3500 mL at rest).
Inspiratory capacity
This is the sum of the inspiratory reserve volume, the tidal volume, and the expiratory reserve volume. This is the maximum volume of air a person can expel from the respiratory tract after a maximum inspiration (approximately 4600 mL).
Vital capacity
This is the expiratory reserve volume plus the residual volume. It is the amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal expiration (approximately 2300 ml at rest).
Functional residual capacity
This is the sum of the inspiratory and explratory reserve volumes plus the tidal volume and the residual volume (approximately 5800 mL).
Total lung capacity
A functional measure of lung performance is the ______________.
forced vital capacity.
This enzyme is found in the medulla oblongata that has the goal to be converted from angiotensin 1 in lungs and angiotensin 2 when they reach the renal system. They also help in blood regulation.
angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE),
Too much oxygen can lead to what?
Alkalinity (Alkalosis) Less than 35
Too much carbon dioxide can lead to what?
Acidity (Acidosis) Greater than 45
This is a continuation of the oropharynx that spans from the posterior length of the larynx to the epiglottis and the esophagus. This is where food and drinks passes through. It is lined with stratified squamous epithelium .
Laryngopharynx
These lobes are used during auscultation. .
upper lobe and the lower lobe (crackles noted at the right/left upper/lower lobe)
These are less than 1mm in diameter and less of cartilage but more of smooth muscles. This is where they terminal bronchiole arise.
bronchioles
What happens when the bronchi gets smaller?
The cartilage becomes sparse and the smooth muscles become more dominant
This is dependent on the weight of the patient and their lung capacity. This is to prevent over inflation of the lungs secondary to the air or to the gas and the ventilation provided. The specific percentage and saturation that can be delivered in the lungs.
Mechanical ventilators (air embolism or air emphysema)
In this, the residual volume is greater than the inspiratory reserve volume hence the air is not completely getting in even in the presence of a forced expiration (retention of the air).
Obstructive Pattern (emphysema, barreled chest, pink puffer - oxygen retention)
In this, the inspiratory reserve volume is greater than the residual volume hence the air is not getting out from the lungs despite forced inspiration and expiration; the lungs have problems when it comes to the entry of oxygen.
Restrictive Pattern (manifested with patients who have bronchitis)
This is the measure of the volume of air avail able for gas exchange per minute.
Alveolar Ventilation
Only a portion of each breath reaches the alveoli for gas exchange. The remaining areas where no gas exchange occurs is called the ______________________.
Dead Space
What are the two types of dead space?
(1) anatomical dead space and
(2) physiological dead space.
This is the space that areas include all the structures of the upper respiratory tract, and structures of the lower respiratory tract to the terminal bronchioles. These are all of the conducting zone areas. The volume of air in the anatomical dead space is approximately 1 ml per pound of an individual’s ideal body weight.
anatomical dead space
This space is the combination of the anatomical dead space and the volume of any alveoli with lower than normal gas exchange.
physiological dead space.
What are the factors affecting areolar ventilation?
(1) Gender,
(2) Age,
(3) Body Size, and
(4) Physical Fitness
What is the maximum vital capacity of adult females?
the vital capacity of adult females is usually 20-25% less than that of adult males.
What is the maximum vital capacity of athletes?
Well-trained athletes can have a vital capacity 30-40% above that of people with a sedentary lifestyle. In patients whose respiratory muscles are paralyzed by spinal cord injury or diseases such as poliomyelitis or muscular dystrophy, vital capacity can be reduced to values not consistent with survival (less than 500-1000 mL).
What happens during emphysema?
alveolar walls degenerate, and small alveoli combine to form larger alveoli. The result is not only fewer alveoli but also alveoli with an increased volume and decreased surface area. Although the enlarged alveoli are still ventilated, their surface area is inadequate for complete gas exchange. and the physiological dead space increases.
This pressure is due to a mixture of gases, each of which is present in a different amount.
Atmospheric Pressure
This is used to express the amount of each gas in a mixture. This is comparable to using the term concentration for solutes
Pressure
This pressure of a gas is the sum of the individual pressures of each gas.
Total Pressure
This is known as the individual pressure. of each gas.
the partial pressure. At sea level, the pressure of all the gases in the air, or atmospheric pressure, is approximately 760 mm Hg (table 15.1
- Oxygen moves from the alveoli (Po,- 104 mm Hg) into the blood (Po, 40 mm Hg) Blood is almost completely saturated with O, when it leaves the capillary.
- The Po, in the blood decreases (Po, 95 mm Hg) when it mixes with deoxygenated blood.
- Oxygen moves from the tissue capillaries (Po,-95 mm Hg) into the tissues (Po, 40 mm Hg).
- Carbon dioxide moves from the tissues (Pco, 45 mm Hg) into tis sue capillaries (Pco, 40 mm Hg).
- Carbon dioxide moves from the pulmonary capillaries (Peo,
45 mm Hg) into the alveoli (Peo,= 40 mm Hg).
This part of the brain controls the respiratory rate because neurons there control the basic rhythm of ventilation through stimulation of the muscles of respiration. The recruitment of muscle fibers and the more frequent stimulation of muscle fibers result in stronger muscle contractions and increased depth of respiration.
Medulla Oblongata (center of respiration - medullary respiratory center)
The medullary respiratory center consists of what neurons?
(1) the dorsal respiratory group and
(2) the ventral respiratory group.
These neurons forms a longitudinal column of cells in the dorsal part of each half of the medulla oblongata.
the dorsal respiratory group
These group of neurons forms a longitudinal column of cells located in the ventral part of each half of the medulla oblongata
the ventral respiratory group.
Where does communication in the medulla oblongata occur?
Communication occurs between the two halves of the medulla within a respiratory group, so that respiratory movements are symmetrical. Communication also occurs between the dorsal and ventral respiratory groups.
When is the dorsal respiratory group most active in?
The dorsal respiratory group is a collection of neurons that are most active during inspiration, and stimulate contraction of the diaphragm.
When is the ventral respiratory group most active in?
The ventral respiratory group is a collection of neurons that are active during both inspiration and expiration
This is a part of the ventral respiratory group that is believed to establish the basic rhythm of respiration.
pre-Bötzinger complex,
This is a collection of neurons in the pons that helps regulate respiration rate. It has connections with the medullary respiratory center and appears to play a role in switching between inspiration and expiration, thus fine-tuning the breathing pattern. It is not considered essential for the generation of the respiratory rhythm.
Pontine respiratory group, formerly called the pneumotaxic center,
What is the normal respiratory rate?
12 to 16 cycles per minute (<8 or >28 - the patient is bounded for code blue)
This regulates the basic rhythm of breathing and limits the depth of inspiration and prevents over inflation if the lungs. This reflex depends on stretch receptors in the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles of the lungs that may affect the medulla oblongata and other organs.
Hering-Breuer Reflex
This pertains to the deoxygenation of the tissues. It is also the decrease in O, below its normal values.
Hypoxia
This pertains to the deoxygenation of the blood.
Hypoxemia
A greater- than-normal amount of CO, in the blood is called ___________________.
hypercapnia (acidosis)
This pertains to the condition lower than normal CO. Hypocapnia results in periods when the breathing rate is reduced or does not occur at all. (over oxygenation)
Hypocapnia (alkalosis)
This pertains to the condition wherein patients cannot BREATHE IN properly.
Hypoventilation (Hypoxia)
This pertains to the condition wherein patients have excessive breathing
Hyperventilation (Hyperoxia)
