Module 01: The Human Body Flashcards
This pertains to the scientific discipline that investigates the structure of the body.
Anatomy
What does the word “anatomy” denote?
The word anatomy means to dissect or cut apart and even separate.
This is the study of the body by systems, such as the cardiovascular system along with musculoskeletal systems.
Systemic Anatomy
This is the study of the organization of the body by areas.
Regional Anatomy
This is the study of large body structures that are palpable to the naked eye.
Gross Anatomy
This is the study of structures too minuscule to be seen by the naked eye.
Microscopic Anatomy
This study traces structure changes that occur through a biotic lifespan.
Developmental Anatomy
This is the study or a general approach employed to examine external features, such as bony projections, which serve as landmarks for listening to heart sounds.
Surface Anatomy
This general approach of examination is constituted with the use of x-rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), to generate pictures of internal structures that aren’t vastly palpable.
Anatomical Imaging
This is the scientific discipline that deals with the processes or functions of living things, such as how the body parts work and carry out their life sustaining activities.
Physiology
What are the two major goals of physiology?
(1) Examining the body’s responses to stimuli
(2) Examining the body’s maintenance of stable internal conditions
This level in the structural and functional organization of the human body pertains to how atoms, like hydrogen and carbon, interact and combine into molecules. In this, it is salient to remember that molecules determine the function.
For example: Collagen molecules are resolute, ropelike fibers that generates skin structural strength and flexibility. However, as these molecules deteriorate, the skin becomes comparably fragile.
Chemical Level
What are the 4 integral macromolecules that constitute a cell?
(1) Carbohydrates
(2) Lipids
(3) Proteins
(4) Nucleic Acids (DNA)
This level in the structural and functional organization of the human body pertains to the basic structural and functional units of organisms. They are constituted of organelles that delve into particular functions spanning from digestion and movement.
For example, the nucleus contains the cell’s hereditary information, and the mitochondria is conferred to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) that can then be employed as a source of energy.
Cellular Level
This level in the structural and functional organization of the human body pertains to a group of comparable cells and materials surrounding them. The characteristic of the cells constituting them are focal determinants to its function.
Tissue Level
This type of tissue specializes in contraction to generate movement.
Muscle Tissue
This type of tissue specializes in generating action potentials for rapid communication
Nerve Tissue
This type tissue provides a physical barrier for entry into the body and secretions via the glands.
Epithelial Tissue
This type of tissue specializes in providing structure for the body.
Connective Tissue
This level in the structural and functional organization of the human body is composed of two or more types of tissues that perform one or more comparable functions.
For example: The bladder is comprised of inner linings of epithelial tissues and bounded by connective tissues. There are also nerve tissues that relax and contract during the urinary reflex.
Organ Level
This level in the structural and functional organization of the human body pertains to a group of organs that together perform a common function or set of functions.
For example: In the urinary system, the kidneys generate urine and conveyed by the ureters to the urinary bladder, where it will be stored until it is eliminated or discarded through the urethra.
Organ System Level
This system provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and helps produce vitamin D. Moreover, this houses cutaneous (pain and pressure) receptors. This is constituted of skin, hair, nails, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands.
Integumentary System
This bodily system provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and adipose tissues. Moreover, this system is constituted of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints.
Skeletal System
This system generates body movements (locomotion), posture, and conveys body heat. Furthermore, this consists of muscles attached to connective tissues sheets or the skeleton by the tendons.
Muscular System
This is a fast-acting control system of the body; it is conferred to respond to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscle and glands. Apart from that, it also detects sensations and controls movements along with physiological responses and intellectual functions. This is constituted of the brain, the spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors.
Nervous System
This is a system that induces metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many other functions through the hormone secretion from the glands and the cells. This is constituted of endocrine glands, namely the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, and gonads.
Endocrine System
This system conveys nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body via the vessels; and generates a salient role in the immune response and regulation of body temperature. Moreover, this is constituted of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
Cardiovascular System
This system conveys up fluid leaked from the blood vessels and returns it to the blood (fluid tissue balance). Moreover, this system is also conferred to dispose debris in the lymphatic stream and houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) that are integral in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body. This is constituted of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and other lymphatic tissues.
Lymphatic System (Immune System)
This system conveys (exchanges) oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air through the air sacs of the lungs along with regulating the body’s ph. This is constituted of the lungs, diaphragm, and respiratory passages.
Respiratory System
This system breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the bloodstream for distribution and absorption. The non-absorbable units are discarded as feces (elimination of wastes). This system is constituted of the mouth, esophagus, intestine, liver, gallbladder, and other accessory organs.
Digestive System
This system eliminates nitrogenous waste from the body. Moreover, it also regulates water, electrolytes, ion balance, and acid-base balance of the blood. Moreover, this is constituted of the kidneys, ureters, urethra, and urinary bladder.
Urinary System
This system generates oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development; produces milk for the newborn along with hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors. This is constituted of ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, and associated structures.
Female Reproductive System
This system generates sperm cells. The overall function of this system is the production of offspring and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of produce eggs and sex hormones. This is constituted of testes, accessory structures, ducts, and penis.
Male Reproductive System
What does a highly organized human body do?
(1) Maintaining Boundaries
(2) Movement
(3) Responsiveness (Excitability)
(4) Digestion
(5) Metabolism
(6) Excretion
(7) Reproduction
(8) Growth
This requirement of life pertains to the specific interrelationships among the individual parts of an organism. All biotic organisms are constituted of one or more cells. In turn, cellular functions are contingent on the precise organization of large molecules. Thus, disruption of this organized state can result in loss of functions.
Organization
This requirement of life can be observed through the cell membrane. Wherein, the cell regulates or maintains homeostasis through selective permeability. This means that the cell membrane only allows certain things into and out of the cell, allowing the cell to maintain stable conditions that are different from the environment.
Maintains Boundaries
This pertains to the series of normal coordinated, rhythmic muscle contractions, that occurs automatically to move food through the digestive tract
Peristalsis (Movement)
This requirement of life pertains to an organism’s ability to sense changes in the external or internal environment and adjust to those changes. Responses include actions such as moving toward food or water and moving away from danger or poor environmental conditions such as extreme cold or heat. Organisms can also make adjustments that maintain their internal environment.
For example, if our body temperature rises, sweat glands produce sweat, which can lower body temperature down to the normal range.
Responsiveness (Excitability)
This is known as a neurological and sensory mechanism that controls a reflex, an immediate response to a particular stimulus. It includes one sensory neuron which transmits the sensory impulses from the receptors to the central nervous system.
Reflex Arc
This requirement of life pertains to the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma
Digestion
This requirement of life pertains to the ability to use energy to perform other vital functions, such as growth, movement, and reproduction. Human cells possess specialized proteins that can break down food molecules to use as a source of energy.
Metabolism
This is the set of metabolic pathways that BREAKS DOWN MOLECULES into smaller units that are either oxidized to release energy or used in other anabolic reactions.
Catabolism
This refers to the chronic form of catabolism, and it involves the breakdown of your fats, muscles and internal organs. Thus, entailing more energy to carry out bodily functions.
Catabolic State
This refers to the set of metabolic pathways that CONSTRUCT MOLECULES from smaller units, these reactions require energy, known also as ENDERGONIC PROCESS.
Anabolism
This requirement of life pertains to the removal of undesirable end products of metabolism, excess inorganic ions ingested in diet, and removing drugs and toxins from the body through urine formation.
Excretion
This requirement of life pertains to an increase in the size or number of cells, which produces an overall enlargement in all or part of an organism, cell size, or the amount of substance surrounding cells. For example, bones grow when the number of bone cells increases and the bone cells become surrounded by mineralized materials.
Growth
This requirement of life pertains to the production of offspring. This is salient to impede the cease or extinction of humanity.
Reproduction
What are the primary needs entailed to procure human survival?
(a) Nutrients
(b) Oxygen
(c) Water
(d) Normal Body Temperature
Reminder: During homeostasis, the body increases and decreases slightly to the set point or ideal normal value. As long as the body prevails in the normal range, homeostasis is maintained. The average normal body temperature is 98.6 F.
(e) Atmospheric Pressure
This is the ability of the body to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even through the outside world changes continuously. This is the dynamic state equilibrium or balance in which internal conditions vary but always within relatively narrow limits.
Homeostasis
This pertains to the interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions
Homeostatic Control
In homeostatic control, this is the one that generates change in variable.
Stimulus
In homeostatic control, this is the one that detects the change posed by the stimulus, such as the body temperature by detecting the stimuli. This monitors the value of the variable.
Receptor (Baroreceptors)
In homeostatic control, this is the information sent along the afferent pathway to control center.
Input
In homeostatic control, this is the one that determines the set point for the variable and receives input from the receptor about the variable. An example of this is the brain.
Control Center
This pathway within the homeostatic control carries the input and is a pathway between the receptor and the control center.
Afferent Pathway
In homeostatic control, this is the information sent along the efferent pathway to the effector or response
Output
This pathway within the homeostatic control carries the output. It is the pathway between the control center and the response.
Efferent Pathway
In homeostatic control, this is the one that can adjust the value of the variable when directed by the control center, and usually directs is back towards the set point (normal value)
Effector
This type of feedback mechanism occurs when any deviation from the set point is made smaller or resisted.
This leads to either 1) cell fate changes or 2) morphogenetic responses. To respond to the signals and resolve the problem, this feedback mechanism, either
A. Shut off or modulate the activation of the incoming signaling pathway
B. Or regulate the incoming signals
Negative Feedback Mechanism
This type of feedback mechanism has the faculty to augment and enhance the original stimulus so that further responses are even greater. In this mechanism, the response to a stimulus does not stop or reverse it but instead keeps the sequence of events going up (increasing).
Examples of this are:
(1) Estrogen to stimulate ovulation
(2) Oxytocin to initiate onset of labor and release of breastmilk
(3) Coagulation cascade and platelet aggregation through thrombin to avert blood clotting
Positive Feedback Mechanism
This pertains to the patent inability of the body to restore a functional, stable internal environment. Some causes may be aging or . diseases (any failure of normal physiological function that leads to negative symptoms)
Homeostatic Imbalance
This body position refers to a person who is standing upright with the face directed forward, upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward.
Anatomical Position
This body position refers when the lying faces upwards.
Supine Position
This body position refers when the lying faces downwards.
Prone Position
This directional term pertains to ABOVE.
Superior (The mouth is superior to the chin.)
This directional term pertains to BELOW.
Inferior (The nose is inferior to the head.)
This directional term pertains to TOWARD THE FRONT OF THE BODY.
Anterior (The teeth are anterior to the throat)
This directional term pertains to TOWARD THE BACK OF THE BODY.
Posterior (The brain is posterior to the eyes.)
This directional term pertains to TOWARD THE BELLY.
Ventral (The navel is ventral to the spine.)
This directional term pertains to TOWARD THE BACK.
Dorsal (The spine is dorsal to the backbone.)
This directional term pertains to CLOSER TO A POINT OF ATTACHMENT.
Proximal (The shoulder is proximal to the elbow.)
This directional term pertains to FARTHER FROM A POINT OF ATTACHMENT.
Distal (The ankle is distal to the hip.)
This directional term pertains to AWAY FROM THE MIDLINE OF THE BODY.
Lateral (The nipple is lateral to the breastbone.)
This directional term pertains to TOWARD THE MIDDLE OF MIDLINE OF THE BODY.
Medial (The bridge of the nose is medial to the eyes.)
This directional term pertains to TOWARD OR ON THE SURFACE.
Superficial (The skin is superficial to muscle.)
This directional term pertains to AWAY FROM THE SURFACE.
Deep (The lungs are deep to the ribs.)
This body plane separates the body or a structure into right and left halves. The word sagittal means “the flight of an arrow” and refers to the way the body would be split by an arrow passing anteriorly and posteriorly.
Sagittal Body Plane
This body plane is also deemed as a sagittal plane that passes through the midline of the body, dividing it into equal right and left halves.
Median Body Plane
This body plane runs parallel to the ground, dividing the body into superior and inferior portions.
Transverse (horizontal) Body Plane
This body plane runs non-parallel or diagonally to the ground, also dividing the body into superior and inferior portions.
Oblique Body Plane
This body plane divides the body into anterior and posterior halves.
Frontal (coronal) Body Plane
What are the three (3) section cuts for the human body?
(a). Longitudinal section: a cut along the length of the organ
(b) Transverse section or cross section: a cut that completely cuts through the organ.
(c) Oblique section: A cut made diagonally across a long axis
What are the different regions of the abdomen?
(1) left hypochondriac region
(2) right hypochondriac region
(3) epigastric region
(4) right lumbar region
(5) left lumbar region
(6) umbilical region
(7) left inguinal region
(8) right inguinal region
(9) hypogastric region
This body cavity encloses the organs of the nervous system, the brain, and the spinal cord.
TWO SUBDIVISIONS
(A) Cranial Cavity: This subdivision houses the brain.
(B) Vertebral Canal: This houses the spinal cord. -The brain and spinal cord covered in membranes are meninges.
Dorsal Body Cavity
This body cavity houses majority of our internal organs or our viscera.
TWO SUBDIVISIONS
(A) Thoracic Cavity: This is more superior to the abdominopelvic cavity and it houses the heart and the lungs.
(B) Abdominopelvic Cavity: This is enclosed by abdominal muscles
Ventral Body Cavity
What are the two sections of the thoracic cavity?
(1) ________________________: these encloses the lungs and are surrounded by the ribs
(2) ________________________: these houses the heart and its major blood vessels, along with the thymus, trachea, and esophagus.
(1) Two Lateral Pleural Cavities
(2) Medial Mediastinum
What are the two sections of the abdominopelvic cavity?
(1) ______________________: This contains majority of the digestive system.
(2) ______________________: This continues below the pelvis. And is housed within the peritoneal.
(1) Superior Abdominal Cavity
(2) Inferior Pelvic Cavity
This body membrane pertains to the double-layered membrane.
Serosa (serious membrane)
This body membrane pertains to the lining of the walls.
Parietal membrane
This body membrane pertains to the covering of the organs.
Visceral membrane
This body membrane pertains to the fluid lubricating fluid that separates the serosa.
Serious fluid
This body region pertains to the head.
Cephalic Region
This body region pertains to the neck.
Cervical Region
This body region pertains to the skull.
Cranial Region
This body region pertains to the forehead.
Frontal Region
This body region pertains to the nose.
Nasal Region
This body region pertains to the mouth.
Oral Region
This body region pertains to the base of the skull.
Occipital Region
This body region pertains to the eyes.
Orbital Region
This body region pertains to the cheek.
Buccal Region
This body region pertains to the armpit.
Axillary Region
This body region pertains to the ribs.
Costal Region
This body region pertains to the shoulder.
Deltoid Region
This body region pertains to the breast.
Mammary Region
This body region pertains to the chest.
Pectoral Region
This body region pertains to the shoulder blade.
Scapular Region
This body region pertains to the breastbone.
Sternal Region
This body region pertains to the backbone.
Vertebral Region
This body region pertains to the abdomen.
Abdominal Region
This body region pertains to the bend of the hip.
Inguinal Region
This body region pertains to the buttocks.
Gluteal Region
This body region pertains to the lower back.
Lumbar Region
This body region pertains to the area between the hipbones.
Pelvic Region
This body region pertains to the area between the anus and external genitalia.
Perineal Region
This body region pertains to the genitals.
Pubic Region
This body region refers to the end of the vertebral column.
Sacral Region
This body region pertains to the forearm.
Antebrachial Region
This body region pertains to the inner elbow.
Antecubital Region
This body region pertains to the upper arm.
Brachial Region
This body region pertains to the elbow.
Cubital Region
This body region pertains to the wrist.
Carpal Region
This body region pertains to the fingers.
Digital Region
This body region pertains to the hand.
Manual Region
This body region pertains to the pam.
Palmar Region
This body region pertains to the shin or the front of the lower leg.
Crural Region
This body region pertains to the thigh.
Femoral Region
This body region pertains to the front of the knee.
Patellar Region
This body region pertains to the foot.
Pedal Region
This body region pertains to the back of the knee.
Popliteal Region
This body region pertains to the calf or the back of the lower leg.
Sural Region
This body region pertains to the ankle.
Tarsal Region
This pertains to tiny solute particles that do not settle out or scatter light.
Solution
This pertains to solute particles that are larger than in a solution, scatter light, and do not settle out.
Colloid
This pertains to very large particles that settle out and may scatter light.
Suspension
This is a concentration measurement in the blood (glucose, cholesterol, electrolytes)
Milligrams/ deciliter (mg/dL)
This is any element or compound equal to its molecular weight in grams.
Mole
This is the study of the chemical composition and reactions of living matter
Biochemistry
This pertains to compounds containing carbon and made by living things.
Organic Compounds
This pertains to compounds that have the dearth of carbon except carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
Inorganic Compounds
These are groups of atoms that bear an overall charge.
Polyatomic Ions
These are also called, proton donors. And are delineated as substances that release hydrogen ions in detectable amounts.
Reminder:
(1) When these dissolve in water, it releases H+ and anions.
(2) This is deliberately determined by number of protons released.
Acids
These are explicated as proton acceptors. And are delineated as substances that take up hydrogen ions in detectable amounts.
Base
This has the faculty to measure the relative concentration of hydrogen ions in various body fluids.
pH (power of Hydrogen)
This pertains to a pH below 7.35.
Acidemia
This pertains to a pH above 7.45.
Alkalemia
This pertains to the deliberate mixture of acids and bases quantitatively that compels the displacement reaction happen to generate water and salt.
Neutralization
This is constituted of a weak acid and a weak base that resists abrupt and large changes in the pH of body fluids by:
(1) Releasing hydrogen ions when the pH begins to rise
(2) Binding hydrogen ions when the pH drops
Buffer System
These are chainlike molecules made of smaller, similar subunits (monomers).
Polymers
This is the deliberate process wherein monomers combine with each other via covalent bonds to form polymers.
Dehydration Synthesis
This is the process of degrading molecules (water splitting). . In this reaction, a larger molecule forms two (or more) smaller molecules and water is consumed as a reactant. Apart from that, it entails adding water to one large molecule to break it into multiple smaller molecules.
Hydrolysis
What are the three (3) types of carbohydrates?
(1) _________________: These are simple sugars, single chain (e.g. glucose, galactose, ribose)
(2) _________________: These are double sugars, two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis (sucrose, lactose, maltose)
(3) _________________: These are polymers of simple sugars, large fairly insoluble molecules (starch, cellulose – plants; glycogen – animals)
(1) Monosaccharides
(2) Disaccharides
(3) Polysaccharides
What are the types of lipids (insoluble in water but soluble in other lipids, alcohol, and ether)?
(1) _________________: These are fats when solid; oil if liquid, yields large amounts of energy. And are constituted of fatty acids and glycerol (simple sugar).
(2) _________________: These are solely with single covalent bonds between carbon atoms.
(3) _________________: These are comprised of one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.
(4) _________________: These are delineated as solidified fats by addition of H atoms at carbon double bonds.
(5) _________________: These are deliberately modified triglycerides with glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and phosphate group (PO4).
(6) _________________: These are delineated as flat molecules made of interlocking hydrocarbon rings.
(7) _________________: This is deemed salient for human life. Apart from that, it is perceived in cell membranes and raw material for synthesis of vitamin D, steroid hormones and bile salts.
(8) _________________: These are lipids found in all cell membranes (e.g. prostaglandins).
(1) Triglycerides
(2) Saturated Fats
(3) Unsaturated Fats
(4) Trans Fats
(5) Phospholipids
(6) Steroids
(7) Cholesterol
(8) Eicosanoids
These are defined as the building blocks of proteins.
Amino Acids
These are explicated as globular proteins that act as biological catalysts (substances that regulate and accelerate the rate of biochemical reactions).
Enzymes
This is a nucleic acid that has the nucleus as its major cellular site and has the optimal intent of directing protein synthesis and replicating itself before cell division. Moreover, it is constituted with adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
This is a nucleic acid that has the cytoplasm as its major cellular site and has the optimal intent of carrying genetic instructions for protein synthesis. It is a single strand, straight and folded ribose. Moreover, it is constituted with adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U).
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
This is an energy transferring molecule in cells and provides energy immediately usable by all body cells
An enzyme transfers the phosphate group from this to another molecule (phosphorylation), the molecule then become more energetic and able to perform cellular work.
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
This is needed for active transport
This prevent sudden changes in temperature.
High Heat Capacity
These are large amounts of heat are removed through sweat
High Heat Vaporization
These are properties that allows ion separation from compounds to form solutions
Universal Solvent- Polar Properties
These shield proteins to form biological colloids
Hydration Layer
These are ionic compounds containing cations other than H+ and anions other than the hydroxyl ions (OH-)
Salt
What is the ideal pH for the human body?
The pH of the human body ranges between 7.35 to 7.45 with the average of 7.40
This pertains to the condition where there is a lot of acid in the blood.
Emia
This is an electroneutral atom; hence it never loses or gains electrons.
Carbon
This is the process of joining together monomers.
Dehydration Synthesis (The monomers are joined by the removal of OH from one monomer and the removal of H from the other at the side of bond formation.
This the process of degrading molecules (water splitting).
Hydrolysis (We hydrate the monomers so that it will split. The monomers are released by the sudden of a water molecule/ Adding OH to one monomer and adding H to ther other0
This is the complex sugar in plants
Cellulose
This is the complex sugar in animals
Glycogen
These proteins are in charge for mechanical support like collagen.
Structural Proteins.
These proteins are important for catalysis. Protein enzymes are essential for virtually every biochemical reaction in the body
Enzyme Proteins
These proteins are responsible for moving substances (in blood or across plasma membranes)
Ex: hemoglobin transport oxygen in blood. Some plasma membrane proteins transport substances across the plasma membrane
Transport Proteins
These proteins are responsible for muscle contraction.
Actin and Myosin (Contractile proteins)
These proteins are responsible for transmitting signals between cells. Can cat as chemical messengers or a receptors in the plasma membrane
Ex. Insulin (a protein) acts at its receptor to regulate blood sugar levels.
Communication Proteins
These protein protect against disease.
Ex. Antibodies released by certain immune cells are specialized proteins that bind and inactivate foreign substances (e.g., bacteria, toxins, viruses). Antibodies are made of proteins
Defensive Proteins
