Memory: Model, Processes, & Forgetting Flashcards
memory
an active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form, organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage
encoding
the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems
storage
holding onto information for some period of time
retrieval
getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used
information-processing model
model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memore in a series of three stages
parallel distributed processing model (PDP)
a model of memory in which memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections
levels-of-processing model
model of memory that assumes information that is more “deeply processed,” or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time
sensory memory
the very first stage of memory; the point at which information enters the nervous system through the sensory systems
iconic memory
visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second
eidetic imagery
the ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more
echoic imagery
the brief memory of something a person has just heard
short-term memory
the memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used
selective attention
the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input
working memory
an active system that processes the information in short-term memory
maintenence rehearsal
practice of saying information to be remembered over and over in one’s head in order to maintain it in short-term memory
long-term memory
the system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently
elaborative rehearsal
a method of transferring information from the short-term memory into the long-term memory by making that information meaningful in some way
procedural (nondeclarative) memory
type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses; these memories are not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behavior
anterograde amnesia
loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories
implicit memory
memory that is not easily brought into conscious awareness, such as procedural memory
declarative memory
type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known
semantic memory
type of declarative memory containing general knowledgy, such as knowledge of language and information learned in formal education
episodic memory
type of declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others, such as daily activities and events
explicit memory
memory that is consciously known, such as declarative memory
semantic network model
model of memory organization that assumes information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion, with concepts that are related stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related
retrieval cue
a stimulus for remembering
encoding specificity
the tendency for memory of information to be improved if related information (such as surroundings or physiological state) is available when the memore is first formed is also available when the memory is being retrieved
recall
type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be “pulled” from memory with very few external cues
recognition
the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact
serial position effect
tendency of information at the beginning and end of a body of information to be remembered more accurately than information in the middle of the body of information
primacy effect
tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information than the information that follows
recency effect
tendency to remember information at the end of a body of information better than the information at the beginning of it
false positive
error of recognition in which people think that they recognize some stimulus that is not actually in memory
automatic encoding
tendency of certain kinds of information to enter long-term memory with little or not effortful encoding
flashbulb memories
type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it
curve of forgetting
a graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a list and then tapers off gradually
distributed practice
spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods
encoding failure
failure to process information into memory
memory trace
physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed
decay
loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used
disuse
another name for decay, assuming that memories that are not used will eventually decay and disappear
proactive interference
memory problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the learning or retrieval of newer information
retroactive interference
memory retrieval problem that occurs when newer information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older information
