Memory Flashcards
Define memory.
the processes whereby the nervous system:
- Acquires information from new experiences
- Retains this information over time
- Uses it to guide behavior and plan future actions
Define learning
the process by which new information is acquired by the nervous system and is observable through changes in behavior.
What are the two ways to categorize memory?
- Time
2. Qualitative Components
What are the 3 types of temporal memory?
- Immediate
- Working
- Long Term
What is immediate memory?
the ability to hold on going experiences in mind for fractions of a second. (large capacity)
What is working memory?
-Short term memory
The ability to hold and manipulate information in mind for seconds to minutes while it is used to achieve a particular goal.
(Limited in both capacity and duration, therefore relevant information must be continuously reactivated by rehearsal or repetition if it is to persist.)
What is long term memory?
The ability to retain information in a more permanent form of storage for days, weeks, or even a lifetime.
What are the 2 different types of Qualitative (Long Term) categories?
- Declarative (Explicit)
2. Non Declarative (Implicit)
What are the 2 types of declarative memory and define them?
- Episodic: Memory of events
2. Semantic: Memory of facts
Define Non-Declarative (Implicit)
Refers to memories that are expressed through performance independently of consciousness
What are the 3 types of Non-Declarative memory?
- Priming
- Skill Learning
- Conditioning
Define priming.
A change in the processing of a stimulus due to a previous encounter with the same or a related stimulus.
(ex. completing a word fragment with a previously read word, like wheel of fortune)
Define is skill learning?
gradual improvement in performance due to repeated practice. (ex. riding a bicycle)
What is conditioning?
simple responses to associations between stimuli (when a dog salivates at the sound of a can opener associated with food)
What are the 3 processes associated with the cellular mechanisms of declarative memory?
- Encoding
- Storage
- Retrieval
Define encoding of declarative memory.
the processes whereby experiences can alter the nervous system with the alterations known as memory traces.
Define engram (memory trace)
the physical embodiment of any memory in neuronal machinery.
What are the 2 types of encoding of declarative memory?
- Acquisition
2. Consolidation
Define acquisition (encoding).
Refers to a physical modification of the brain caused by incoming sensory information. –> modification of synaptic transmission.
Define consolidation (encoding).
The way in which immediate and working memories become long-term memories. (synaptic modifications become more permanent. involves new gene expression and protein synthesis)
What is storage of declarative memory?
the retention of memory traces over time
What is retrieval of declarative memory?
the accessing of stored memory traces.
What is retrieval most effective with?
a retrieval cue- typically a piece of information associated with a particular aspect of the original event.
What are all forms of memory dependent on?
Changes in neuronal connectivity and the relative strength of synaptic transmission.
Which anatomical structures are responsible for working memory?
- Prefrontal Cortex
2. Posterior Parietal Cortex
What happens to animals when the working memory area has a lesion?
have difficulty with delayed response tasks such as finding food in a well after being shown the food in the well, followed by a delay.
What anatomical structures are responsible for encoding?
Hippocampus
What happens to animals when the encoding area has a lesion?
animals with lesions are unable to remember a task. the mouse learns to find the platform, but if it has a lesion, the mouse never learns. Has no memory of where it is.
What anatomical structures are responsible for storage?
Cerebral cortex
What happens to animals when the storage area has a lesion?
larger cortical lesions (location doesn’t matter) correlate with decreased memory as demonstrated while running through mazes of varying difficulty.
What anatomical structures are responsible for retrieving memory?
Association cortices (primarily frontal)
What anatomical structures are responsible for non-declarative memory?
- Basal Ganglia
- Prefrontal Cortex
- Amygdala
- Sensory Association Cortices
- Cerebellum
What happens to animals when the non declarative memory area has a lesion?
lesions involving connections between the between the basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex interfere with the ability to learn new motor skills
What is the function of memory?
allows us to learn from the past, understand the present, and plan for the future.
-All cognitive abilities depend on memory.
What is the function of amnesia?
Loss of memory following a neurological insult
What is anterograde amnesia?
an inability to establish new memories following a neurological insult.
Explain what happens in the case of HM.
He suffered severe seizures and he underwent surgery. They removed both hippocampus. He had anterograde amnesia. He remembered everything until he had the surgery. His non-declarative memory was fine.
What is retrograde amnesia?
an inability retrieving memories established prior to a neurological insult.
What systems bring language into our brains?
Visual and auditory systems
What systems produce speech and writing?
Motor system
Define language.
the ability to associate symbols with specific meanings to express thoughts and emotions to ourselves and others. (can be expressed in gestures, writing and speech)
Define speech.
an audible form of communication built on the sounds that humans produce.
-comes naturally, requires no formal training.
What are the 6 components of language?
- phonemes
- words
- sentences
- grammar
- syntax
- prosody
What are phonemes?
fundamental speech sounds
What are words?
combinations of phonemes
What are sentences?
sequences of words that express a thought
What is grammar?
the system of rules by which words are properly formed and combined in any given language
What is syntax?
the more general set of rules describing the combination of grammatically correct words and phrases that can, in turn, be used to make meaningful sentences?
What is prosody?
emotional and tonal components of language.
Describe the steps of speech production.
- Exhalation of air–> 2. air flows through the glottis between vocal folds (chords)–> 3. sounds produced by vibrations in tightened vocal folds–> 4. sound is modified at stages of vocal tract (pharynx, mouth, nose)–> 5. changes in the position of the soft palate, tongue, and lips modulate sound for speech.
What is Dysarthria?
motor speech disorder, resulting from impaired movement of the muscles used for speech production (lips, tongue, vocal folds, and/or diaphragm) due to neurological injury.
What are the 2 theories on language characteristics?
- universal grammar
2. connectionist
Explain the universal grammar theory.
All languages share some basic rules existing in the neural circuitry in specialized brain regions. However, fundamental features of languages vary widely.
Explain the connectionist theory of language.
A framework for the organization of words based on associations. Ex. When someone is presented with any word, other words automatically come to mind.
What area is responsible for the production of language?
Broca’s Area (Inferior Frontal Gyrus–> Pars opercularis and triangularis)
What area is responsible for comprehension of language?
Wernicke’s Area (Superior Temporal Gyrus, Supramarginal Gyrus, Angular Gyrus)
what does the left hemisphere mediate?
phonetic, word, and sentence processing.
what does the right hemisphere mediate?
important for expression and comprehension of the affective aspects of speech.
What is the function of language?
communication
What is aphasia?
diminished or abolished ability to produce and/or to comprehend language as a vehicle for meaningful communication, while sparing the ability to produce intelligible words and to perceive the relevant stimuli.
What is broca’s apahasia?
- inability to produce language
- organizational aspects of language are disrupted
- halting speech, perseveration, disordered structure of wrods/grammar/syntax but comprehension is intact.
What is wernicke’s aphasia?
- inability to comprehend language
- people have difficulty putting together objects or ideas and the words that signify them.
- fluency, grammar/syntax are intact
What is alexia?
inability to read due to lesion interfering with input from visual cortex to the left angular gyrus.
What is the function of executive functions?
- support the flexible control of goal directed behavior, consciously or unconsciously, dependent upon the circumstances in which they are evoked.
- Role in maintaining an individual’s personality.
What are the 2 general syndromes a lesion in the prefrontal cortex can lead to?
- Dysexecutive syndrome- lateral prefrontal cortex
2. Disinhibition syndrome- ventral and medial prefrontal cortex
What is dysexecutive syndrome?
poor initiation, failure to plan, limited attention, difficulty interacting with others, lack of insight, but normal memory, language and intelligence.
What is disinhibition syndrome?
constant movement, euphoric or manic with an abnormal sense of humor, inappropriate in social situation but normal memory, language, and intelligence.
what are the two components of consciousness?
- content
2. level
what is the content component of consciousness?
the substrate upon which consciousness acts.
what are the levels of consciousness?
- alertness
- attention
- awareness of self and environment (focus on this in clinic)
how is consciousness defined?
in terms of responses to stimuli.
define coma
a state of unconsciousness and a level of unresponsiveness to all internal and external stimuli
