Macromolecules Flashcards
Most important large molecules found in living things
- Carbohydrates
- Lipids
- Proteins
Nucleic acids
Macromolecules
Large biological molecules that show unique emergent properties arising from the arrangement of atoms
3 Key Macromolecules
- Carbohydrates
- Proteins
Nuclei acids
- Proteins
Polymers
long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds
Carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acid are chain-like molecules called
polymers
Monomers
smaller molecules that are the repeating building blocks of a polymer
Each class of polymer is made of
different type of monomer
Enzymes
Macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions
Dehydration reaction
two molecules are covalently bonded to each other with the loss of a water molecule
The reaction connecting the monomers and is repeated whenever a monomer is added to the chain
dehydration reaction
hydrolysis
Polymers are disassembled to monomers
how does hydrolysis break down polymers
The bond between monomers is broken by the addition of a water molecule
Dehydration reactions and hydrolysis can also be involved in the formation and breakdown of molecules
that are not polymers (lipids)
The inherited differences between close relatives of macromolecules
Reflect small variations in polymers
Molecular differences between unrelated individuals
Are more extensive than those of close relatives
molecular difference between species
even greater than both close relatives and unrelated individuals
The key to the diverse polymers is the
arrangement of the units
Molecular structure are function can still be grouped by
class despite the diversity
Molecular logic of life
Small molecules common to all organisms are ordered into unique macromolecules
Carbohydrates serve as
fuel and building material
carbohydrates include
sugars and polymers of sugars
Monosaccharides
simplest carbohydrates
what reaction is this
dehydration reaction
what reaction is this
hydrolysis reaction
single sugar
monosaccharaides
Disaccharides
a. Double bonded sugars
Disaccharides consist of
two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond
is this a Disaccharides or Monosaccharides or a polysaccharides
Disaccharides
is this a Monosaccharides or a Disaccharides or a polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
polysaccharides
Composed of many sugar building blocks
is this a Monosaccharides or a Disaccharides or a polysaccharides
polysaccharides
Monosaccharides Have molecular formulas that are
some multiple of the unit CH2O
most common monosaccharide
glucose
Glucose structure
Has a carbonyl and multiple hydroxyl groups
what 3 things classify a monosaccharide
- location of the carbonyl group
- number of carons in the skeleton
- position of hydroxyl group around the skeleton
aldoses
sugars with an aldehyde group
ketoses
sugars with a ketone group
trioses
3 carbon sugars
is this an aldose or ketose
Adlose
is this an aldose or ketose
ketose
An example of an aldose
glucose
an example of a ketose
fructose
what is the best way to draw glucose
in rings
why is glucose drawn in rings
its more stable in aqueous soulutions
glucose is ____ for cells
major nutrients
Monosaccharides are both _____ for cells and _____ for larger organic molecules
major fuel sources and raw material
Disaccharides are formed by
Two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage
Glycosidic linkage
covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction
what is the most common disaccharide
sucrose
polysaccharides
polymers of sugar that have storage and structural roles
The structure and function of a polysaccharide are determined by the
sugar monomers and the position of the glycosidic linkage
Storage polysaccharides in plants
Store starch as granules within cellular structures known as plastids
Synthesizing starch allows the plant to
stockpile excess glucose
Sugar can be withdrawn from the carbohydrate “bank” by
hydrolysis
storage polysaccharides in animals
Store polysaccharide called glycogen
glycogen is like glucose but
it’s more branched
by being more branched, glycogen has
more free ends available for hydrolysis
glycogen is mainly stored in the
liver and muscle cells
the hydrolysis of glycogen releases _____ when the demand for ____ increases
glucose and energy
Simplest form of starch is
unbranched
Structural Polysaccharides example
cellulose
Cellulose is a major component of what plant cells
the cell wall
Cellulose is a polymer of
glucose
how is cellulose different from starches
through its glycosidic linkages
In starch, all glucose monomers are in what configuration
the alpha configuration
in cellulose, it’s glucose monomers are in the ____ configuration
beta
what does the beta configuration do to the glucose monomer
b. Every glucose monomer is “upside” compared to its neighbour
Is this alpha or beta configuration?
alpha
Is this alpha or beta configuration?
beta
Enzymes that hydrolyze (or digest) α linkages in starch cannot do what
digest beta linkages in cellulose
how does cellulose pass through the human digestive tract
as insoluble fibre
The differing glycosidic linkage between starch and cellulose
Give the two molecules distinct three dimensional shapes
Starch molecules have a shape of
spiral shape
cellulose molecules have a shape of
straight line
why are cellulose molecules never branched
imparting strength to parts of the plant
Enzymes that digest starch can do what
only hydrolyze either the alpha or beta linkage based on the different shapes of the molecules
how can some animals digest cellulose
they have a symbiotic relationship with microbes that can digest cellulose
structural polysaccharides also do what
(think arthropods)
strengths chitin
chitin hardens when
proteins are chemically linked to each other
how is chitin found in fungi
i. Use this instead of cellulose as the building material for their cell walls
Lipids are the one class of large biological molecules that
does not form polymers
lipids are not _____ because of their _____
macromolecules and size
what one trait do all lipids share
they are hdyrophobic
why are lipids hydrophobic
their molecular structure and hydrocarbon bonds
Most biologically important lipids
a. Fats
b. Phospholipids
c. Steroids
fats are made from
glycerol and fatty acids
Glycerol
three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl attached
to each carbon
Fatty acids
carboxyl group linked to a long
hydrocarbon chain
a fat is also known as
triacylglycerol
Ester linkage:
Dehydration reaction between a hydroxyl and carboxyl group
how are fats made
Three fatty acid molecules are each joined to glycerol by an ester linkage
The fatty acids can be ______ or ____ different kinds
same or two/three
• Fats separate from water because
water molecules hydrogen-bond to
each other, but exclude the non-polar fats
A major function of fats
- Energy storage
adipose cells
- Location of long-term food reserves in humans and mammal
adipose cells do what as fat is deposited and withdrawn from storage
swell and shrink
Adipose tissue does what
- Cushions vital organs (example: kidneys)
Layer of fat beneath the skin insulates the body
• Saturated fatty acids have
- No double bonds between carbon atoms of a chain
in Saturated fatty acid
As many hydrogen atoms as possible are bonded to the carbon skeleton
Most animal fats are
saturated
Flexibility in saturated fate allows the fat molecules to
pack together tightly
what fat is Solid at room temp
saturated fat
Unsaturated fatty acids
One or more double bonds with one fewer hydrogen atoms on each double bonded carbon
fats that are liquid at room temp
Unsaturated fatty acids
Fats of plants and fish are
Unsaturated fats
is this saturated or unsaturated or trans fat?
trans
is this saturated or unsaturated or trans fat?
unsaturated
is this saturated or unsaturated or trans fat?
saturated
fat that is Liquid at room temperature
unsaturated fats
Hydrogenated vegetable oil
- Unsaturated fats have been synthetically converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogen
Hydrogenated vegetable oil produces
saturated fats and unsaturated fats with trans double bond
essential fatty acids
unsaturated fatty acids are not synthesized in the
human body
Phospholipids structure
two fatty acids and a phosphate group
are attached to glycerol
- Cells could not exists without this type of lipid
Phospholipids
why are Phospholipids so essential
they are major part of cell membranes
- Two ends of the phospholipids show different behaviours toward the water
Hydrocarbon tails are hydrophobic: excluded from water
The phosphate group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head
phospholipids in water lead to a
- Self-assemble into double-layered structures called Bilayers
• Steroids
Lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton of four fused rings
Cholesterol
component in animal cell membranes
Most dynamic functions of living things depend on
proteins
proteins account for ____ if dry mass of the cell
50%
7 Protein functions
Speeding up (catalyzing) chemical reactions
• structural support
• storage
• transport
• cellular communications
• movement
• defence against foreign substances
Enzymes
proteins regulate metabolism by acting as catalysts
catalysts
a. Chemical agents that selectively speed up chemical reactions without being used up by the reaction
Enzyme can preform function
over and over again
Enzymatic proteins
Selective acceleration of chemical reactions
Storage proteins
Storage of amino acids
Hormonal proteins
Coordination of an organism’s activities
Contractile and motor proteins
Movement
Defensive proteins
Protection against disease
Transport proteins
Transport of substances
Receptor proteins
Response of cell to chemical stimuli
Structural proteins
Support
All proteins are polymers constructed from
the same set of 20
amino acids
Peptide bonds
Bond between amino acids
Polymer of amino acids
Polypeptide
Amino Acid Monomers
An organic molecule with both an amino group and a carboxyl group
polypeptides are
unbranched
Amino acids differ in their properties due to
differing side
chains, called R groups
Amino acids with nonpolar side chains
hydrophobic
Amino acids with polar side chains
hydrophilic
Acid amino acids
negatively charged from a carboxyl group
Basic amino acids
positively charged amino acids in side chain
Acid and basic amino acids are
hydrophilic
Amino acids are linked by
peptide bonds
Peptide Bond
two amino acids are positioned so that the carboxyl group of one is adjacent to the amino group of the other, by dehydration reaction
One end of the amino acid has a free
amino group
One end of the amino acid has a free
carboxyl group
the carboxyl group end of an amino acid
c terminal
the amine group end of an amino acid
n terminal
Chemical nature of the molecule is determined by the
kind and sequence of the side chains
Protein function relies on
three-dimensional
architecture
The what determines a protein’s three-dimensional
structure
The sequence of amino acids
protein Function depends on ability to
recognize and bind to some other molecule
Polypeptide and protein are synonyms
false
4 levels of protein structure
a. Primary
b. Secondary
c. Tertiary
Quaternary
Primary Structure of protein
protein’s sequence of amino acids
he precise primary structure of a protein is determined by the
inherited genetic information not random linking of amino acids
Dictates secondary and tertiary structures
primary structures
Secondary structure
The coils and folds within the polypeptide
chain
Typical secondary structures
include
coil called an α-helix, and
• folded structure called a
β-pleated sheet
The Beta pleated sheet
Two or more segments of the polypeptide chain lying side by side Connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of the two parallel segments of the backbone
a. The alpha helix
i. Delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every FOURTH amino acid
Tertiary structure
- The overall shape of a polypeptide from the interactions between side chains of the various amino acids
One interaction that contributes to Tertiary structure
Hydrophobic interactions
Hydrophobic interactions
polypeptide folds into its functional shape and the amino acids with hydrophobic side chains are usually end up in clusters at the core of the protein (out of water)
Tertiary structure is determined by interactions between
R groups
Disulphide bridges
- Covalent bond that form where two cysteine monomers are brought close together by the folding of protein
Quaternary Structure
Proteins consist of two or more polypeptide chains aggregated into one functional macromolecule
Sickle-Cell disease
- Inherited blood disorder caused by the substitution of one amino acid for the normal one at a particular position in the primary structure of hemoglobin
Normal red blood cells are
: disk-shaped
Sickle cell shape
sickle shape
Example of Quaternary Structure
Collagen
What determines protein structure
primary structure, physical and chemical conditions can
affect structure
Folding normally occurs as the protein is being s
synthesized in the cell aided by other proteins
Denaturation
protein unravels and loses its native shape
the denatured protein is
inactive
what cause a protein to denature, or unravel
Alterations in pH, salt concentration, temperature, or other
environmental factors
Most proteins go through several intermediate structures before
reaching the stable shape
Not simple to figure out the exact 3D structure of a protein as
a single protein molecule has 1000s of atoms
some proteins do not have a 3D structure until they
interact with target protein or molecule
why is flexibility is important for protein function
Might bind with different targets at different time
X-Ray Crystallography
Used to determine 3D protein sturcture
Nucleic Acid
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) enable
living organisms to reproduce complex components from one generation to next
DNA provides
a. Directions for its own replication
b. Directs RNA synthesis
Through RNA controls protein synthesis
genetic material that organisms inherit from parents
DNA
DNA directs synthesis of -_____ that controls ______
mRNA and protein synthesis
mRNA conveys
genetic instructions for builidng proteins from nucleus to cytoplasm
Nucleic acids are macromolecules that exist as polymers called
POLYNUCELOTIDEDS
Each polynucleotide has monomers called a
nucleotides
nucleotides have 3 parts
Nitrogen base
Five carbon sugar (pentose)
One or more phosphate group
In a polynucleotide Each monomer has
1 phosphate group
monomers in nucleic acid without any phosphate group
nucleoside
Pyrimidine
six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms
Pyrimidine nucleiotides
a. Cytosine (C)
b. Thymine (T)
Uracil (U)
Purines nucleiotides
a. Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Purines are
larger with a six-membered ring fused to a five-member ring
U only in
RNA
T found only in
DNA
A, G, C are found in
both DNA and RNA
DNA the sugar is attached
to the deoxyribose
RNA sugar is attached
ribose
Linkage of nucleotides into a polynucleotide needs
dehydration reaction
adjacent nucleotides are joined by
phosphodiester linkage
phosphodiester linkage
a phosphate group that links the sugars of 2 nucleotides
Sugar phosphate backbone built from
5 prime to 3 prime
Bases are attached along the
backbone
DNA has ___ strands that wind around and form a ____
two and double helix
A pairs with
T
G pairs with
C
Two strands of the double helix are
complementary
RNA is ____ strands
single
RNA base pairs allow it
the 3D shape for its function
what pair is not in RNA
t
antiparallel
two backbones run in the opposite
5prime→ 3prime directions from each
other
biologists sought to “decode” genes
uncovering their base sequences
Bioinformatics
computational approaches to deal with the
data resulting from the sequencing of many genomes
Genomics
analysis of large sets of genes, or
comparisons of whole genomes of different species
Proteomics
analysis of large sets of proteins, including
their amino acid sequences
DNA carries heritable info can document the
heredity background of organism
Since nucleotides are appendages on the sugar-phosphate backbone, they aren’t what
Aren’t involved in the structure of the backbone
3 major difference of rna and dna
- Dna is double while rna is single stranded
- DNA has thymine while rna has uracil
- DNA has deoxyribose sugar while rna has ribose sugar
Hydrogen bond are found where in the dna strand
Between two complementary nucleotides
Covalent bonds in nucleotides are found
Holding the nucleotides to the backbone
What is added on the 5’ chain
Phosphate group
What is added to the 3’ end
5 carbone pentose sugar
