M2: Biological Molecules Flashcards
1
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Useful Biological Ions
What’s the function of Calcium ions?
( Ca 2+ )
A
- Nerve Impulses
- Muscle Contractions
2
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Useful Biological Ions
What’s the function of Sodium ions?
( Na 2+ )
A
- Nerve Impulses
- Kidney Function
3
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Useful Biological Ions
What’s the function of Potassium ions?
( K + )
A
- Nerve Impulses
- Stomata
4
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Useful Biological Ions
What’s the function of Hydrogen ions?
( H + )
A
- Catalysts
- pH Determinations
5
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Useful Biological Ions
What’s the function of Ammonium ions?
( NH4 + )
A
- Needed to make nitrate ions
6
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Useful Biological Ions
What’s the function of Nitrate ions?
( NO3 -)
A
- Amino Acid formation
7
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Useful Biological Ions
What’s the function of Hydrogen Carbonate ions?
( HCO3 -)
A
- Maintain blood pH
8
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Useful Biological Ions
What’s the function of Chloride ions?
( Cl -)
A
- Balance Sodium & Potassium ions in cells
9
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Useful Biological Ions
What’s the function of Phosphate ions?
( PO4 3-)
A
- Cell Membranes
- Nucleic Acid & ATP formation
- Bone formation
10
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Useful Biological Ions
What’s the function of Hydroxide ions?
( OH -)
A
- Catalysts
- pH determination
11
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules:
What are Monomers?
A
Individual molecules
12
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules:
What are Polymers?
A
Long-chain molecules made up by linking multiple monomers
13
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules:
What is a Hydrolysis Reaction?
A
Chemical breakdown of compounds by using water
14
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules:
What is a Condensation Reaction?
A
Joining of 2 monomers which removes water
15
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules:
What is meant by Healthy Diet?
A
Right proportion of something
16
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Water
Why is water so important?
Water is essential to life: body made of 80% water in plants & animals
A
-
Metabolite in many reactions:
→ hydrolysis reactions
→ condensation reaction - Cell’s metabolic reactions occur in aqueous solution
- Most of its properties result from the ability of water molecules to ‘stick together’
17
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Water
What’s a Polar Molecule?
A
Molecules that contain regions of negative charge (δ-) and positive charge (δ+)
18
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Water Properties
Why’s water described as a Liquid?
Provides habitats & mediums for chemical reactions & transport
A
-
Water molecules constantly move around
↳ H bonds continually break & reform between molecules
↳ difficult for water molecules to escape & become a gas : more energy is required - Water has low viscosity (flows easily)
19
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Water Properties
Why’s the Density of water more dense until 4°C?
A
- Water cools
↳ more H bonds form - Molecules = more spaced out
↳ ice = less dense
20
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Water Properties
What is a Solvent?
A
What it is dissolved in
21
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Water Properties
What is a Solution?
A
Liquid w dissolved solids, liquid or gas
22
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Water Properties
What is a Solute?
A
What is being dissolved
23
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Water Properties
Why’s water a Good Solvent?
A
its polar :
↳ attracted to any other substance = polar
- water molecules cluster around these parts & will help them separate & stay apart
- they’re dissolved & solution has formed
24
Q
2.1.2 Biological molecules: Water Properties
What’s Cohesion?
A
Force of attraction between LIKE molecules
- H bonds between water molecules pull them towards each other : they stick together
25
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Water Properties
What's Adhesion?
Force of **attraction** between **UNLIKE molecules**
- Water molecules attracted to surfaces
26
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Water Properties
What's Tension?
Force that **tends** to **stretch something**
27
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Water Properties
What's Surface Tension?
| Cohesion between water molecules
* Looking at *water* & *air* surface
↳ water **can't form bonds** with the **air** **:** they **form hydrogen bonds** with **other water molecules**
↳ creating a **lattice** on the **surface**
28
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Water Properties
What's meant by Specific Heat Capacity?
Energy required to raise the temp of 1kg of a substance by 1°C
29
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Water Properties
Why's the SHC of water High?
- Water **DOESN'T experience** **rapid temp changes**
↳ H bonds between water moleculss absorb lots of energy
↳ water absorbs/loses large amount of heat before its temp changes
30
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Water Properties
What's meant by Latent Heat of Evaporation?
Amount energy required to change the state of 1kg of a substance with no change in temp
31
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Water Properties
Why's the SLH Vapourisation of water High?
**Absorbs** **lots of heat** *before* it **becomes gas**
↳ lots of energy needed to break H bonds between water
- When water evaporates, SLH of v helps molecules to break away from each other →become a gas
32
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates
What's the function of Carbonhydrates?
Used as energy source & structural materials in organisms
33
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates
What are Carbonhydrates made up of?
* Carboon
* Hydrogen
* Oxygen
34
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates
What's meant by Monosaccharides?
Small simple sugars
35
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates
What are examples of Monosaccharides?
* Glucose
* Fructose
* Ribose
* Galactose
36
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates
What's meant by Disaccharides?
Double sugars
↳ condensation reaction of 2 monosaccharides
37
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates
What are examples of Disaccharides?
* Lactose
* Sucrose
* Maltose
38
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates
What's meant by Polysaccharides?
Long chain of sugars
↳ multiple monosaccharides
39
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates
What are examples of Polysaccharides?
* Glucogen
* Cellulose
* Starch
40
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Glucose Properties
How many Carbons does Glucose have?
6
↳ its a Hexose sugar
41
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Glucose Properties
What's the General Formula for Glucose?
C6H12O6
42
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Glucose Properties
Why's Glucose Soluble in water?
H bonds are formed between hydroxl groups & water mol
↳ allows glucose to be dissolved in the cystol of cell
43
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Glucose Isomers
What are the Glucose Isomers?
* Alpha Glucose
* Beta Glucose
44
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Glucose Isomers
What's the difference between between Alpha & Beta Glucose?
**A**lpha has OH- **B**elow its 1st carbon
**B**eta has OH- **A**bove its 1st carbon
45
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates Condensation Reaction
What's the Condensation reacton between 2 Glucose?
* OH (hydroxide) & H (hydrogen) react through condensation
↳ H2O (water) is made leaving oxygen behind
* Oxygen bonds with carbon
↳ this is a 1,4 glycosidic bond
46
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Pentose Properties
How many Carbons does a Pentose Sugar have?
5
47
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Pentose Properties
Where are Pentose Sugars present?
RNA nucleotides
48
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Pentose Isomers
What are the Pentose Isomers?
* Ribose Sugar
* Deoxyribose Sugar
49
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Pentose Isomers
What's the difference between the Ribose & Deoxyribose Sugars?
* Ribose has one H & one OH- group attached to its 2nd carbon
* Deoxyribose has two H atoms attached to its 2nd carbon
50
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Disaccharides
What's Malt Sugar?
| Maltose = Glucose + Glucose
Formed from 2 glucose molecules joined by an alpha 1,4 glycosidic bond
51
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Disaccharides
What's Table Sugar?
| Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose
Formed from glucose & fructose joined by an alpha 1,4 glycosidic bond
52
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Disaccharides
What's Milk Sugar?
| Lactose = Glucose + Galactose
Formed from galactose & glucose joined by a beta 1,4 glycosidic bond
53
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates
What's Starch?
Storage mol for autotrophes
54
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Polysaccharides
What's Starch stored as?
Intracellular starch grains in plasmids
55
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Polysaccharides
Which 2 Polysaccharides made up Starch?
* Amylose
* Amylopectin
56
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Polysaccharides
What's Amylose?
| Plant
* Long chain of alpha glucose = joined together by 1,4 glycosidic bonds
* Coils up into a helix shape
* Amylose molecules only have 2 accessible where amylase enzyme can bind
↳ meaning it is broken down slowly
57
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Polysaccharides
What's Amylopectin?
| Plant
* Long chain of alpha glucose = joined together by 1,4 glycosidic bonds
↳ also has occasional 1,6 glycosidic bonds
↳ this creates side branches w more accessible ends
↳ meaning it has quicker release of alpha glucose
This makes amylopectin more hydrolysed (easily broken down) by enzymes when glucose is needed.
58
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Polysaccharides
What's Glycogen's structure like?
| Energy
* Forms more branches than amylopectin
* insoluble
59
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Polysaccharides
What's Cellulose?
| Structure
* Very strong & stops plant cells from bursting when too much water enters by osmosis
* Composed of many thousands of beta glucose molecules joined together by 1,4 glycosidic bonds
60
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Polysaccharides
What's Celluose's structure?
To be able to form 1,4 glycosidic bonds:
* Each beta glucose molecule must be inverted by 180° from the previous molecules
* The inversions keep cellulose from coiling & result in a long straight chain
↳ chains are now parallel to each other
61
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Polysaccharides
How does Cellulose undergo Hydrogen Bonding?
* Cellulose is inverted so its parallel to each other chain
↳ results in hydroxl groups
* Hydrogen bonds form between hydroxl groups (OH) on adjacent chains
↳ cross-linking between cellulose chains
62
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates Testing
What's the Test for Carbonhydrates?
| Starch
* Iondine
Positive: orange-brown to blue-black
63
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates Testing
What's a Non-reducing Sugar?
Doesn’t reduce copper ions in benedicts reagent
* e.g. Sucrose
64
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates Testing
What's the Test for Non-Reducing Sugars?
1) Place sample into test tube
2) Add HCl
↳ hydrolyses
3) Place into hot water bath
↳ speeds up reaction
4) Place into a cold water bath
↳ cool down solution
5) Add NaOH
↳ neutralises reaction → use litmus paper to check
6) Add Benedicts
7) Place into hot water bath
8) Observe colour change
From blue to green/yellow/orange/brick red
65
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates Testing
What's a Reducing Sugar?
| Causes copper ions in benedicts reagent to be reduced
Goes from Copper Sulphate → Copper Oxide
* e.g. All monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose)
* Some disaccharides (maltose, lactose)
66
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates Testing
What's the Test for Reducing Sugars?
1) Add 2cm3 of the sample (If the sample is not already in liquid form, first grind it up in water)
2) Add 2cm3 of Benedicts reagent.
3) Heat the mixture in hot water bath
4) Observe colour change
From blue to green/yellow/orange/brick red
67
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates Testing
Why are these Tests Semi Quantitative?
Results are associated w non-numerical values
68
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates Testing
What's meant by Serial Dilution?
When the dilution factor is the same
69
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates Testing
What's the Serial Dilution Practical?
* If u got 10cm3 of a 10% solution, if u take 1cm3 & put into a different container, it is 1% of that 10% solution and if u fill the rest of that container with 9cm3 of water.
* You’ll now have the same volume of water as the 10% one.
* Repeat this for every container
70
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates Testing
What's meant by Simple Dilution?
When the dilution factor is different
71
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates Testing
What's the Simple Dilution Practical?
* If u got 10cm3 of a 10% solution and the amount needed to be added to the 2.5% solution is unknown & so is the amount of water added.
To work out:
-Water
* Take away 10cm3 (total amount of solution) by the amount needed to be added to the 2.5% solution from the 10%
* Unknown amount needed to be added to the 2.5% solution from the 10%
NOTE:
If there’s another solution, always take the unknown amount from the original solution concentration
72
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Carbonhydrates Testing
What's the Simple Dilution Practical Equation?
M1 V1 = M2 V2 M = concentration V = volume
**Where:**
M1= concentration of original solution
V1 = volume you’d like to transfer (unknown)
M2= concentration we want to end up with
V2 = volume we want to work out
V1 = M2 V2 / M1
V1 = 2.5 x 10 / 10
V1 = 2.5 cm3
73
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Lipids
What's an Example of True/Neutral Fats?
Triglycerides
74
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Lipids
What are Examples of Other Important Lipids?
* Waxes
* Steroids
* Cholesterol
75
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Lipids
What are Lipids made up of?
* Carbon
* Hydrogen
* Oxygen
| Have a higher proportion of hydrogen & lower proportion of oxygen
76
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Triclycerides
What's a Triglyceride?
When a glycerol & 3 fatty acids chains combine
↳ forming 3 H2O & 3 Ester Bonds
77
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Triglycerides
Are the fatty acids in a Triglyceride Saturated or Unsaturated?
They're both
78
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Tryglycerides
Why are Triglycerides liquids at room temp?
The double bonds cause the molecule to bend
↳ they cannot therefore pack together so closely making them liquid at room temp (i.e. oils)
79
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Tryglycerides
Why are Triglycerides an Energy Storage?
* Due to large ration of energy storing carbon-hydrogen bonds compared to the number of carbon atoms a lot of energy is stored in the molecule
* Lipids weight less than muscle
80
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Triglycerides
Why can Triglycerides release water if Oxidised?
Due to high ration of hydrogen to oxygen atoms they act as a metabolic water source. This is essential for animals in the desert
81
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Triglycerides
Why are Triglycerides Hydrophobic?
Do not affect water potentials & osmosis. They're large & hydrophobic (repel water) making them insoluble in water
82
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Triglycerides
Why do Triglycerides have a Low Mass compared to Tissue (muscle) ?
A lot can be stored without increasing the mass & preventing movement
83
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Lipids
What's meant by the term 'Saturated'?
Hydrocarbon chain has only carbon single bonds
84
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Lipids
What's meant by the term 'Unsaturated'?
Hydrocarbon chain has more than 1 carbon double bond
85
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Lipids
What's meant by the term 'Mono-unsaturated'?
Hydrocarbon chain has 1 carbon double bond
86
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Phospholipids
What's a Phospholipid?
| A glycerol, 2 fatty acid chains & phosphate
Major component of cell membrane
* becomes more **hydrophillic**
* overall is **hydrophobic**
-phosphate replaces 3rd fatty acid tail
87
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Phospholipids
Why are Phospholipids described as Hydrophillic?
**Hydrophillic** 'head'
* Attracts to water
↳ because its charged
↳ it repels other fats
88
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Phospholipids
Why are Phospholipids described as Hydrophobic?
**Hydrophobic** 'rest of body'
* It repels water but will mix w fats
↳ because its not charged
89
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Phospholipids
Why are Phospholipids described as Polar?
**Polar**
PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER membrane structure is created.
-Makes up the plasma membrane around cells
90
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Phospholipids
What are the Phospholipid Functions?
| Fats found in **adipose tissue**
**Heat Insulation**
↳ in mammeals, adipose tissue underneath the skin helps reduce heat loss
**Protection**
↳ adipose tissue around delicate organs (i.e. kidney) acts as a cushion against impacts
91
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Lipids Testing
What's the Emulsion Test?
1. Dissolve sample in ethanol
2. Add distilled water
3. Positive Observation: white emulsion appears if there’s a lipid
92
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Lipids
Which family is Cholesterol part in?
Steroids
93
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Lipids
What are the 2 Key Features of Cholesterol?
* **hydrophillic** hydroxl group
↳ interacts w hydrophillic parts of phospholipids (phosphate head)
* **hydrophobic** rest of molecule
↳ interacts w hydrophobic parts of phospholipids (fatty acid chains)
94
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Lipids
What's the 1st Function of Cholesterol?
Used as the starting point for a range of hormones
95
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Lipids
What Advantage do Oestrogen & Testoreone get for having Cholesterol as its Base Hormone?
They can pass through the plasma membrane
↳ allows them to interact w receptors inside cells
96
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Lipids
What's the 2nd Function of Cholesterol?
Used in body to make Vitamin D
↳ takes place in the skin in response to UV light
↳ needed for proper development of bones
97
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Lipids
What's the 3rd Function of Cholesterol?
Used in liver to produce bile
↳ increases the rae of digestion of lipids through lipase
98
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
What are Proteins made up of?
* Carbon
* Hydrogen
* Oxygen
* Nitrogen
* Sulfur (cistie)
99
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
What's the Basic Structure of a Protein?
* Amine Group
* Hydroxl Group
* R Group/ variable side chain
100
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
What happens when 2 Proteins combine?
A condensation reaction occurs forming a **peptide** bond
101
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
What happens when 2 Amino Acids combine?
A **dipeptide** molecule is formed
102
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
What happens when many amino acids combine by peptide bonds?
A **polypeptide** is formed
103
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
What's a Protein Primary Strcuture?
Sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
104
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
Which Bonds are present in a Protein's Primary Structure?
* Peptide Bonds
105
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
What's a Protein Secondary Structure?
The way a primary structure of a polypeptide chain folds
* Beta pleated polypeptide
* Alpha helix polypeptide
106
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
Which Bonds are present in a Protein's Secondary Structure?
* Hydrogen Bonds
107
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
What's a Protein's Tertiary Structure?
When the 2nd structure folds into a 3D structure
* folding a protein into its final shape
108
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
Which Bonds are present in a Protein's Tertiary Structure?
* Disulfate
* Ionic
* Hydrogen
* Hydrophobic
* Hydrophillic
109
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
What's a Protein's Quarternary Structure?
When more than 1 polypeptide chain comes together
110
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
What's a Protein's Structural Role?
Main component of body tissue, skin, ligaments & hair
111
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
What's a Protein's Catalytic Role?
All enzymes are proteins (catalysing many biochemical reactions)
112
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
What's a Protein's Signalling Role?
Many hormones & receptors are proteins
113
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
What's a Protein's Immunity Role?
All antibodies are proteins
114
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Globular Proteins
What Shape are Globular Proteins?
Spherical Shape
115
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Globular Proteins
When are Globular Proteins formed?
When proteins fold into their 3D structure in a way that the hydrophobic R groups on each amino acids are kept away
116
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Globular Proteins
What are Properties of Globular Proteins?
* Compact
* Water Soluble
117
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Globular Proteins
What's **Insulin**?
Hormone involved in regulating blood glucose levels
↳ hormones are transported in blood sream **:** need to be soluble
118
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Conjugated Proteins
What are Conjugated Proteins?
Globular proteins that contain a prosthetic group
119
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Conjugated Proteins
What are the Prosthetic Groups of Conjugated Proteins?
* Lipids → lipoproteins
* Carbonhydrates → glycoproteins
120
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Conjugated Proteins
What's **Haemoglobin**?
Red oxygen carrying pigment found in red blood cells
121
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins
How's **Haemoglobin** adapted for its function?
| Haem Group: containing Fe2+ ionns
Iron in each haem group, combines reversibly w oxygen molecule
↳ this is what enables haemoglobin to carry oxygen around body
122
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Conjugated Proteins
What's the Protein structure in **Haemoglobin**?
Quarternary Protein
↳ made of 4 polypeptides
↳ 2 alpha & 2 beta
123
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Fibrous Proteins
What are Properties of Fibrous Proteins?
* Carry out structural functions
* Strong
* Rope-like fibres
* Insoluble
124
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** FIbous Proteins
What's the Fibrous Protein: **Collagen**
| 3 polypeptide chains wound around each other
* Hydrogen bonds formed between coils
-coils = 1000 amino acids in length → gives structure strength
↳ strength is increased due to cllagen molecules forming further chains w other collagen molecules
↳ forming **Covalent Cross Links** w each other
-these r staggered along the molecules → further increase stability
Collagen molecules wraped around each other form **Collagen Fibrils**
↳can form **Collagen Fibres**
125
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Fibrous Proteins
What's the Fibrous Protein: **Keratin**?
* Group of fibrous proteins found in **HAIR/SKIN/NAILS**
* Large proportion of **Sulfur** (containing cysteine)
↳resulting in many strong disulfide bonds forming **:** inflexible & insoluble materials
* Degree of disulfide bonds = flexibility of materal
↳ hair has fewer bonds
126
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Firbous Proteins
What's Fibrous Protein: **Elastin**?
* Found in **elastic fibres**
↳ present in blood vessels' walls & alveoli
↳ give these structures **flexibility** to expand when needed & return to normal size
127
# **2.1.2 Biological molecules:** Proteins Testing
What's the Protein Test?
Biuret
Positive: blue to lilac/violet
