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Anatomy and Physiology II > Lesson 4 - Endocrine Pt 2 > Flashcards

Lesson 4 - Endocrine Pt 2 Flashcards

1
Q

gigantism

A

hypersecretion of GH during childhood (before growth plates are depleted)

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2
Q

acromegaly

A

hypersecretion of GH during adulthood (after growth plates closed)

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3
Q

what happens with acromegaly?

A

thickening of the bones and soft tissues, especially hands, feet, and face

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4
Q

pituitary dwarfism

A

hyposecretion of GH during childhood
- rare because GH is now plentiful, made by genetically engineered bacteria

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5
Q

pineal gland

where is it located?

A

attached to the roof of the third ventricle beneath the posterior end of the corpus callosum

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6
Q

what happens to the pineal gland after age 7?

A

involution (shrinking)

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7
Q

pinealocytes synthesize _____ at night and fluctuates seasonally

A

melatonin

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8
Q

where are melatonin receptors in the body?

A

widespread

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9
Q

what are some functions of melatonin receptors? (4)

A
  • circadian rhythm
  • promotes sleep
  • has antioxidant/anticancer properties
  • slow maturation of sperm and egg cells
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10
Q

what has lack of melatonin been linked to?

A

premature puberty in humans

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11
Q

the thymus plays a role in three different systems:

A

endocrine, lymphoid, and immune

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12
Q

how many lobes does the thymus have?

A

two

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13
Q

where is the thymus located?

A

the mediastinum superior to the heart

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14
Q

what happens to the thymus after puberty?

A

involution

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15
Q

involution

A

shrinking

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16
Q

functions of the thymus (2)

A
  • site of maturation of T cells
  • secretes hormones that stimulate development of other lymphoid organs
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17
Q

what hormones does the thymus release? (3)

A

thymopoietin, thymosin, and thymulin

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18
Q

thyroid gland

what is special about this gland?

A

it is the largest gland that is purely endocrine

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19
Q

where is the thyroid gland located?

A

adjacent to the trachea, immediately below the larynx

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20
Q

structure of the thyroid gland (2)

A
  • two lobes connected by a narrow bridge (isthmus)
  • composed of sacs called thyroid follicles
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21
Q

isthmus

A

the narrow bridge connecting the two lobes of the thyroid

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22
Q

thyroid follicles

A

contain protein-rich colloid surrounded by simple cuboidal epithelium of follicular cells

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23
Q

what do follicular cells of the thyroid secrete?

A

thyroid hormone (TH)

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24
Q

T4 is also called

A

tetraiodothyronine because it has four iodine atoms

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25
Q

what does thyroid hormone collectively refer to?

A

T3 and T4

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26
Q

what form is 90% of thyroid hormone (TH)?

A

T4 or thyroxine

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27
Q

what form is 10% of thyroid hormone (TH)?

A

T3 or triiodothyronine

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28
Q

what is TH released in response to?

A

TSH release from the anterior pituitary

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29
Q

what do TSH levels influcence?

A

TRH release from the hypothalamus

TRH = thyrotropin-releasing hormone

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30
Q

parafollicular cells aka

A

clear (C) cells

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31
Q

what do clear cells secrete?

A

calcitonin in response to rising blood calcium

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32
Q

what does calcitonin do? (4)

A
  • stimulate osteoblast activity
  • inhibits osteoclast activity
  • stimulates bone formation in children
  • reduces blood calcium by stimulating calcium excretion by kidneys
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33
Q

what is essential for the production of T4/T3?

A

iodine

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34
Q

thyroid hormone is transported in the blood by what proteins?

A
  • thyroid-binding globulins (TBG), a blood plasma protein
  • transthyretin (thyroid binding prealbumin TBPA)
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35
Q

what does TH do? (6)

A

increases metabolic rate, O2 consumption, heat production, appetite, growth hormone secretion, and alertness

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36
Q

calorigenic effect

A

increase in heat production

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37
Q

what is TH needed for in children?

A

normal development of skeletal, muscular, and nervous system

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38
Q

effects of TH on peripheral tissue (7)

A
  1. elevated rates of O2 consumption/energy consumption
  2. increased heart rate/force of contraction (incres. blood pressure)
  3. increases sensitivity to sympathetic stimulation
  4. maintains normal sensitivity of respiratory centers to changes in [O2/CO2]
  5. stimulates RBC formation thus enhancing O2 delivery
  6. stimulates activity in other endocrine tissue
  7. accelerates turnover of minerals in bone
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39
Q

congenital hypothyroidism

what is it and what does it cause?

A

TH hyposecretion present from birth; causes stunted bone growth, intellectual disabilities

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40
Q

what happens if TH levels decline before puberty?

A

normal skeletal muscle development with not continue

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41
Q

myexdema

A

severe or prolonged adult hypothyroidism

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42
Q

symptoms of myxedema (7)

A
  • swelling of face
  • slow heart rate
  • low body temp
  • sensitivity to cold
  • dry skin/hair
  • muscle weakness
  • weight gain
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43
Q

how do they threat hypothyroidism?

A

oral thyroid hormone

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44
Q

endemic goiter (2)

what is it, and what is it due to?

A

pathological enlargement of the thyroid gland due to dietary iodine deficiency
- accumulation of colloid causes visible swelling in the neck

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45
Q

hyperthyroidism

A

excessive TH secretion

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46
Q

graves disease

A

autoimmune disorder; some of your body’s antibodies mimic the function of TSH, and the thyroid gland responds to the antibodies by secreting more TH

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47
Q

parathyroid glands

A

four small, ovoid glands partially embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland

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48
Q

what do the parathyroid cells secrete?

A

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

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49
Q

what does PTH do?

A

increases blood calcium levels if blood levels are too low (antagonist to calcitonin)

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50
Q

functions of PTH: (3)

A
  • promotes synthesis of calcitriol by the kidneys to enhance calcium and phosphate absorption in digestive system
  • decreases urinary excretion of calcium through urinary systems
  • increases bone resorption by by osteoclasts and inhibits osteoblasts
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51
Q

what do inadequate levels of PTH cause?

A

weak and flexible bones

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52
Q

adrenal (suprarenal) glands

A

sit on superior surface of each kidney; consists of medulla and cortex

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53
Q

adrenal medulla

what is the secretion controlled by?

A

inner core; hormone secretion is controlled by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system

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54
Q

adrenal cortex

what is secretion controlled by?

A

thicker outer portion; hormone secretion is controlled by ATCH release from the anterior pituitar

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55
Q

adrenal medulla compostition

A

consists of modified POSTganglionic neurons called chromaffin cells

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56
Q

what is the adrenal medulla innervated by?

A

sympathetic PREganglionic fibers

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57
Q

what is the dual nature of the adrenal medulla?

A

acting as an endocrine gland and a ganglion of the sympathetic nervous system

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58
Q

when the adrenal medullae are stimulated they release what?

A

catecholamines like epinephrine and norepinephrine

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59
Q

catecholamines have what effects on the body? (3)

A

mobilize high-energy fuels, lactate, fatty acids, and glucose
increases blood pressure, heart rate, blood flow to muscles, pulmonary airflow, and metabolic rate
decreases digestion and urine production

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60
Q

epinephrine has what kind of effect?

A

glucose-sparing effect

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61
Q

glucose-sparing effect

A

muscles use fatty acids, saving glucose for brain neurons

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62
Q

glycogenolysis

A

breakdown of glucose

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63
Q

gluconeogenesis

A

conversion of fats, amino acids, and other carbs to glucose

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64
Q

adrenal cortex

what is it and what does it secrete?

A

surrounds medulla and secretes several corticosteroid or corticoids

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65
Q

mineralocorticoids

A

regulate electrolyte balance

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66
Q

what is an example of a mineralocorticoid?

A

aldosterone

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67
Q

what types of corticosteroid does the adrenal cortex secrete? (2)

A

mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids

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68
Q

glucocorticoids (2)

what do they regulate?

A

regulate fuel metabolism and androgens

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69
Q

examples of glucocorticoids (2)

A

cortisol/hydrocortisone and corticosterone

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70
Q

aldosterone

what does it do?

A

increases taste bud sensitivity to sodium

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71
Q

what is aldosterone released in response to?

A

falling blood pressure

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72
Q

what is the most significant mineralocorticoid?

A

aldosterone

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73
Q

falling blood pressure causes the release of _____ from the kidneys, which stimulates _____ release from the adrenal cortex

A

angiotensin II, aldosterone

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74
Q

what does aldosterone cause the kidneys to do?

A

retain sodium in exchange for a loss in potassium, reabsorbing water along with the sodium

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75
Q

aldosteronism

what is it and what does it cause?

A

excess aldosterone released causing increase in body weight due to water retention and low blood K+

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76
Q

what is the most potent glucocorticoid?

A

cortisol

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77
Q

some circulating cortisol is converted to _____ by the liver

A

cortisone

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78
Q

what is cortisol secreted in response to what other hormones? (2)

A.C.

A

adrenocorticotropic hormone release from the anterior pituitary and corticotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus

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79
Q

what does cortisol do? (3)

does not relate to Na or water

A

stimulates fat and protein catabolism, gluconeogenesis, and the release of fatty acids/glucose into the blood

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80
Q

what does the effects of cortisol help the body do?

A

adapt to stress and repair damaged tissues

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81
Q

cortisol has a _____ effect

A

anti-inflammatory

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82
Q

what does excessive secretion/medical use of cortisol do?

A

suppresses the immune system; do not use on open wounds

83
Q

Addison’s disease (2)

A

hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and aldosterones

84
Q

symptoms and signs of Addison’s disease (4)

t.l.l.h.

A
  • tiredness
  • loss of appetite
  • low blood Na+
  • high blood K+
85
Q

Cushing syndrome

A

excess cortisol secretion

86
Q

causes of Cushing syndrome (3)

A.A.A.

A

adrenocorticotropic hormone hypersecretion by pituitary, ACTH- secreting hormones, and hyperactivity of adrenal cortex

87
Q

signs and symptoms of Cushing syndrome (6)

A
  • hyperglycemia
  • hypertension
  • weakness
  • edema
  • rapid muscle/bone loss due to protein catabolism
  • abnormal fat deposition (moon face/buffalo hump)
88
Q

androgens

A

primary adrenal sex steroids, but also produce small amounts of estrogen

89
Q

what are androgens secreted in response to?

A

A

ACTH secretion from the anterior pituitary

90
Q

dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)

A

major androgen, converted to a more potent form (testosterone or dihydrotestosterone) in target tissues

91
Q

what is DHEA responsible for? (3)

A

at puberty, it stimulates public/axillary hair growth, gland development, and libido

92
Q

hypersecretion of androgens causes? (2)

A

virilization and amenorrhea (in females)

93
Q

virilization

A

excessive hair growth

94
Q

amenorrhea

A

loss of menstration

95
Q

estradiol (2)

A

major adrenal estrogen; significant source of estrogen in females after menopause

96
Q

pancreas

A

primarily and exocrine digestive gland (99% of function), but also contains scattered endocrine cell clusters called pancreatic islets

97
Q

pancreatic islets/islets of Langerhans

A

scattered endocrine cell clusters within the pancreas

98
Q

pancreatic hormones are very important in regulating _____

A

glycemia - blood glucose concentration

99
Q

what hormones do pancreatic islets release? (3)

A

glucagon, insulin, and amylin

100
Q

pancreas: alpha (a) cells (2)

A

aka glucagon cells
secrete glucagon between meals when blood glucose concentrations fall

101
Q

what does glucagon stimulate in the liver? (3)

A

gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, and the release of glucose into circulation raising blood glucose levels

102
Q

what does glucagon do in adipose tissue? (2)

A

stimulates fat catabolism and release of free fatty acids

103
Q

what is glucagon also released in response to?

A

rising amino acid levels in the blood to promote their absorption, providing cells with raw material for gluconeogenesis

104
Q

beta (B) cells

A

aka insulin cells
secrete insulin and amylin during and after a meal when glucose and amino acids blood levels are rising

105
Q

insulin stimulates cells to do what?

A

absorb glucose and amino acids and store/metabolize them, lowering blood glucose levels

106
Q

insulin promotes the synthesis of what? (3)

A

glycogen, fat, and protein

107
Q

what does insulin suppress?

A

the use of already stored fuels in cells

108
Q

what organs do not need insulin to absorb glucose? (4)

A
  • brain
  • liver
  • kidneys
  • RBCs
109
Q

what is the cause of diabetes mellitus?

A

insulin insufficiency or inaction

110
Q

what does amylin do? (5)

A

reduced glucose spikes by slowing the emptying of the stomach, modulating gastric secretions, inhibiting glucagon secretion and signalling satiety

111
Q

diabetes mellitus (DM)

A

disruption of carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism due to hyposecretion or inaction of insulin

112
Q

classic signs and symptoms of diabetes mellitus (6)

A

polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, hyperglycemia, glycosuria, and ketonuria

113
Q

polyuria

A

excess urine output

114
Q

polydipsia

A

intense thirst

115
Q

polyphagia

A

hunger

116
Q

hyperglycemia

A

elevated blood glucose

117
Q

glycosuria

A

glucose in urine

118
Q

ketonuria

A

ketones in urine

119
Q

how do the signs and symptoms of diabetes mellitus interplay? (copy and pasted a paragraph)

A

Polyuria with thirst and dehydration occurs because glucose is filtered out of blood at the kidneys and not completely reabsorbed back into blood – too much glucose in blood for it to be reabsorbed back into blood during the filtration process at the kidneys. Water is lost via osmosis as it is “pulled” by the filtered glucose, resulting in high volume urine containing glucose

120
Q

type 1 diabetes mellitus

A

insulin level is very low, no longer regulates glycemia and hyperglycemia results

121
Q

hyperglycemia

A

abnormally high blood glucose levels

122
Q

when does type 1 diabetes usually develop?

A

childhood

123
Q

what does type 1 diabetes do to the body?

A

the individual generates immune cells that destroy pancreatic beta cells and thus destroying insulin production

124
Q

T/F: type 1 diabetes is caused by diet issues

A

false, it is hereditary

125
Q

signs and symptoms of type 1 diabetes mellitus (2)

A

glycosuria, and polyuria

glucose in the urine, and lots of urine

126
Q

treatments for type 1 diabetes (3)

A

insulin injections, insulin pump, and dry insulin inhaler

127
Q

what is also important for people with type 1 diabetes mellitus?

A

monitoring blood glucose levels and having a controlled diet

128
Q

type 2 diabetes mellitus

A

problem is insulin resistance - unresponsiveness of target cells to insulin, but insulin production is normal

129
Q

risk factors of type 2 diabetes mellitus (4)

A

heredity, age (40+), obesity, ethnicity (Native, Latin, or Asian descent)

130
Q

what is type 2 diabetes treated with?

A

weight-loss program and exercise

131
Q

why is type 2 diabetes treated with weight-loss and exercise? (3)

A
  • loss of muscle mass causes difficulty with regulation of glycemia
  • adipose signals interfere with glucose uptake into most cells
  • if needed, also use glycemia-lowering medications (metformin)
132
Q

pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes

A

calls can’t absorb glucose and must rely on fat and proteins for energy needs, thus weight loss, weakness, and an increase of free fatty acids/ketones in blood

133
Q

ketonuria

A

ketones in urine

134
Q

what negative effects does ketonuria promote? (4)

o.l.i.n.

A
  • osmotic diuresis
  • loss of Na+ and K+
  • irregular heartbeat
  • neurological issues
135
Q

ketoacidosis

A

occurs as ketones decrease blood pH; deep gasping breathing and diabetic coma are terminal result

136
Q

Kussmaul respiratoin

A

deep, gasping breathing

137
Q

chronic diabetes pathology leads to… (3)

A
  • neuropathy and cardiovascular damage
  • arterial damage in retina and kidneys (type 1)
  • atherosclerosis leads to heart failure (type 2)
138
Q

diabetic nephropathy

A

kidney damage that can lead to kidney failed from diabetes

139
Q

diabetic neuropathy (4)

what can it lead to?

A

nerve damage from impoverished flood flow can lead to erectile dysfunction, incontinence, poor wound healing, and loss of sensation from areas

140
Q

diabetic retinopathy

A

retina damage as capillaries grow and leak out blood (hemorrhage) at the retina, may lead to partial or complete blindness

141
Q

early myocardial infarction

A

heart attacks; degenerative blockages in cardiac circulation can lead to early heart attacks

142
Q

peripheral tissue damage

A

blood flow to the distal portions of the limbs is reduced, and peripheral tissues can develop ulceration, infection, tissue death, loss of toes/feet

143
Q

gonads

A

(ovaries and testes) have both endocrine and exocrine functions

144
Q

exocrine product of gonads

A

eggs and sperm

145
Q

endocrine product of gonads

A

gonadal hormones- mostly steroid

146
Q

ovarian hormones (3)

E.P.I

A

estradiol, progesterone, and inhibin

147
Q

testicular hormones (4)

A

testosterone, weaker androgens, estrogen, and inhibin

148
Q

keratinocytes convert a cholesterol-like steroid into _____ using UV from the sun

A

cholecalciferol

149
Q

the liver

what is it involved in?

A

involved in the production of at least five hormones

150
Q

what does the liver convert?

A

cholecalciferol into calcidiol

151
Q

what does the liver secrete? (4)

A.E.I.H.

A

angiotensinogen, erythropoietin, insulin-like growth factor 1, and hepcidin

152
Q

angiotensinogen

A

a prohormone, and a precursor of angiotensin II a regulator of blood pressure

153
Q

erythropoietin

A

stimulates bone marrow

154
Q

insulin-like growth factor I

A

controls action of growth hormone

155
Q

hepcidin

promotes what?
i

A

promotes intestinal absorption of iron

156
Q

kidneys

what do they play a role in?

A

play a role in production of three hormones

157
Q

what does the kidney convert?

C–> C

A

calcidiol (from the liver) to calcitriol (vitamin D3)

158
Q

what does calcitriol do? (2)

c

A

increased calcium absorption by intestines and inhibits calcium loss in urine

159
Q

what does the kidney secrete?

A

renin

160
Q

what does renin do?

A

converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin 1

161
Q

angiotensin-converting enzyme

A

converts angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2

162
Q

where is angiotensin-converting enzyme found?

A

in the lungs

163
Q

what does angiotensin 2 do?(4)

A
  • constricts blood vessels
  • stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex
  • stimulates antidiuretic hormone from the posterior pituitary
  • leading to water reabsorption in the kidneys increasing blood pressure
164
Q

what is the main source of erythropoietin?

A

the kidney

165
Q

what does the heart’s atrial muscle secrete?

A

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) in response to increasing blood pressure

166
Q

what do ANP and BNP do?

decrease what?

A

decrease blood volume and pressure by decreasing sodium and water output by the kidneys and opposes the action of angiotensin II

167
Q

the stomach and small intestine secrete at least 10 _____ _____ secreted by enteroendocrine cells

A

enteric hormones

168
Q

what do enteric hormones do?

A

coordinate digestive motility and glandular secretion, some are gut-brain peptides

169
Q

enteric hormones (4)

C.G.G.P.

A

cholecystokinin, gastrin, ghrelin, and peptide YY

170
Q

what does adipose tissue secrete?

A

leptin

171
Q

when does adipose tissue secrete leptin?

A

as tissue absorbs glucose and lipis

172
Q

what does leptin do?

A

acts as a negative feedback mechanism to reduce appetite

173
Q

synergistic effects

A

multiple hormones act together for greater effect

174
Q

example of a synergistic effects

A

follicle stimulating hormone and testosterone on sperm production

175
Q

permissive effects

A

one hormone enhances the target organ’s response to a second, later hormone

176
Q

example of permissive effects

A

estrogen prepares uterus for action of progesterone

177
Q

antagonistic effects

A

one hormone opposes the action of another

178
Q

example of antagonistic effects

A

insulin lowers blood fgucose while glucogon raises it

179
Q

integrative effects

A

hormones produce different but complementary effects

180
Q

example of integrative effects

A

calcitriol and parathyroid hormone both increase blood calcium levels

181
Q

stress

A

situation that upsets homeostasis and threatens one’s physical or emotional well-being

182
Q

stressors include (8)

A

injury, surgery, infection, intense exercise, pain, grief, depression, anger

183
Q

how does the body respond to stress?

A

stress response - general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

184
Q

three stages of the stress response

A
  1. alarm reaction
  2. stage of resistance
  3. stage of exhaustion
185
Q

what does the stress response typically include?

elevated levels of what hormones?

A

elevated levels of epinephrine and glucocorticoids (especially cortisol)

186
Q

alarm reaction (2)

A

initial response to stress, releases norepinephrine and epinephrine from the sympathetic nervous system via the adrenal medulla

187
Q

what does the alarm response prepare the body for?

A

fight or flight

188
Q

what is the dominant hormone in the alarm reaction of the stress response?

A

epinephrine

189
Q

hormones of the alarm reaction (2)

A

norepinephrine and epinephrine

190
Q

what hormones increase during the alarm reaction? (2)

what do they promote?

A

aldosterone and angiotensin to help raise blood pressure, and promote sodium and water conservation

191
Q

stage of resistance

A

providing alternative fuels for metabolism

192
Q

what is the dominant hormone in the stage of resistance?

A

cortisol

193
Q

stage of resistance: what happens after a few hours or the stressor not being resolved?

A

glycogen reserves are gone and dietary intake cannot maintain pace with the body’s demand

194
Q

stage of resistance: the hypothalamus and pituitary secrete…

C.A.

A

hypothalamus: corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
pituitary: adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

195
Q

cortisol has a _____-_____ effect

A

glucose-sparing

196
Q

what is a glucose-sparing effect?

A

inhibits protein synthesis leaving free amino acids for gluconeogenesis to produce glucose for neural tissue

197
Q

what adverse effects come from the glucose-sparing effect? (3)

A
  • depresses immune function
  • increases susceptibility to infection and ulcers
  • lymphoid tissues atrophy, antibody levels drop, and wounds heal poorly
198
Q

stage of exhaustion

A

stress overwhelms homeostasis, may lead to rapid decline and death

199
Q

stage of exhaustion: what happens when stress continues for several months?

A

fat reserves are gone and the body cannot maintain homeostasis, protein breakdown and muscle wasting occurs

200
Q

stage of exhaustion: why does loss of glucose homeostasis occur?

_____ stops producing _____

A

the adrenal cortex stops producing glucocorticoids

201
Q

stage of exhaustion: aldosterone

what does it promote?

A

promotes water retention and hypertension by conserving Na+, hastening elimination of K+ and H+

202
Q

stage of exhaustion: hypokalemia and alkalosis

A

los potassium and high pH

203
Q

death occurs from what after the stage of exhaustion? (4)

A

hypokalemia, alkalosis, heart/kidney failure, and/or overwhelming infection

Anatomy and Physiology II (19 decks)

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