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Anatomy and Physiology II > Lesson 2 - Part 2 - Special Senses > Flashcards

Lesson 2 - Part 2 - Special Senses Flashcards

1
Q

vision (sight)

A

perception of objects in the environment by means of light they emit or reflect

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2
Q

light

A

visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum

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3
Q

light must cause a _____ reaction to produce a nerve signal

A

photochemical

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4
Q

ultraviolet radiation

A

< 400nm, has too much energy and destroys macromolecules

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5
Q

infrared (IR) radiation

A

> 700 nm, too little energy to cause photochemical reaction, but does warm the tissues

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6
Q

orbital region

A

area around the orbit (eye socket), contain structures that protect and aid the eye

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7
Q

eyebrows

A

enhance facial expression, protect eyes from glare and perspiration

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8
Q

eyelids (palpebrae)

A

consist of orbicularis oculi muscle and supportive fibrous tarsal plate

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9
Q

medial and lateral commissures

A

where the eyelids meet on the medial and lateral sides of the eyes

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10
Q

eyelids are covered with _____ outside and _____ inside

A

skin, conjunctiva

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11
Q

tarsal glands

A

secrete oil that reduces tear evaporation and prevents the eyelids from sticking together

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12
Q

eyelashes help….

A

keep debris out of the eye

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13
Q

conjunctiva

A

transparent mucous membrane lining the eyelids and covering the anterior eyeball, expect the cornea

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14
Q

conjunctivitis

A

pinkeye, inflammation and associated redness caused by allergic reaction, chemical irritations, or an infection by a pathogen

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15
Q

what does the conjunctiva do?

A

secretes a thin mucous film to prevent the drying of the eyeball

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16
Q

lacrimal apparatus

A

gland and tear ducts for production and drainage of tears

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17
Q

lacrimal gland

A

in superolateral corner of the orbit, it secretes tears

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18
Q

tears

A

slightly alkaline, watery secretion containing antibodies and bactericidal lysozyme; washes over and lubricates the eye, delivers oxygen and nutrients to conjunctiva

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19
Q

lacrimal punctum

A

opening on the eyelid edge

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20
Q

how do tears flow through the eye? (4)

A
  1. lacrimal punctum
  2. lacrimal sac
  3. nasolacrimal duct
  4. empty into the nasal cavity
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21
Q

lacrimal caruncle

A

mass of soft tissue containing glands that produce a thick secretion that forms into a gritty deposit (you discover after waking up)

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22
Q

orbital fat

A

cushions the eye, protects vessels and nerves

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23
Q

extrinsic eye muscles

A

attach to exterior surface of the eye

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24
Q

rectus muscles

A

superior, inferior, medial, and lateral rectus

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25
Q

oblique muscles

A

superior and inferior

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26
Q

all of the extrinsic eye muscles (6)

A
  • superior rectus
  • inferior rectus
  • medial rectus
  • lateral rectus
  • superior oblique
  • inferior oblique
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27
Q

what cranial nerves innervate the extrinsic eye muscles? What muscles do they innervate? (3)

A
  • IV innervates superior oblique
  • VI innervates lateral rectus
  • III innervates other four extrinsic muscle
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28
Q

how does the superior rectus move the eyeball?

A

up

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29
Q

how does the inferior rectus move the eyeball?

A

down

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30
Q

how does the medial rectus move the eyeball?

A

medially

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31
Q

how does the lateral rectus move the eyeball?

A

laterally

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32
Q

how do the superior and inferior obliques turn the eye?

A

turns the 12 o’clock pole of each eye toward or away from the nose; they also produce slight elevations and depressions of the eye

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33
Q

three tunics of the eye

A
  1. fibrous layer
  2. vascular layer
  3. inner layer
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34
Q

fibrous layer of the eye (3)

A

outer layer derived from two regions
- sclera
- cornea
- corneal limbus

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35
Q

vascular layer of the eye

A

uvea; middle layer with three regions
- choroid
- ciliary body
- iris

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36
Q

how does the ciliary body support the eye?

A

it supports the lens and iris by secreting aqueous humor

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37
Q

how does the pupil dilate?

A

dilation of the pupil caused by sympathetic stimulation of pupillary dilator muscle

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38
Q

how does the pupil constrict?

A

constriction of the pupil is caused by the parasympathetic stimulation of the pupillary constrictor muscles

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39
Q

what causes a dark iris?

A

a lot of melanin in chromatophores

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40
Q

chromatophores

A

iris pigmented cells

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41
Q

choroid

A

highly vascular, darkly pigmented layer behind the retina that provides oxygen and nutrients to the retina

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42
Q

ciliary body

A

extension of the choroid, a muscular ring around the lens

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43
Q

iris

A

colored diaphragm controlling the size of the pupil

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44
Q

functions of the uvea (4)

A
  1. provides route for blood/lymphatic vessels that supply the eye
  2. regulates amount of light entering the eye
  3. secretes and reabsorbs aqueous humor that circulate within the anterior cavity of the eye
  4. controls the shape of the lens to focus light onto the retina
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45
Q

sclera

A

tough, fibrous protective layer; the white of the eye

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46
Q

cornea

A

anterior transparent region; admits light into the eye

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47
Q

corneal limbus

A

border separating the sclera from the cornea

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48
Q

inner layer of the eye

A

retina and pigmented epithelium located next to choroid of the uvea

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49
Q

what does the pigmented epithelium do?

A

absorbs light that passes through the inner neural layer and prevents light from bouncing back into the retina

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50
Q

the inner layer contains what specialized cells?

A

photoreceptors called rods and cones

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51
Q

rods

A

do not detect different wavelengths (cannot detect colors); however, very sensitive to light, used in low light surroundings

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52
Q

cones

A

provides color vision; cones clustered at fovea centralis at the center of the macula lutea

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53
Q

cornea

A

transparent window allowing light into the eye, the initial refraction of light occurs here

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54
Q

aqueous humor

A

serous fluid secreted by ciliary body into the posterior chamber between the iris and lens

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55
Q

posterior chamber of the eye

A

the area between the iris and the lens

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56
Q

anterior chamber of the eye

A

the space between the iris of the cornea

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57
Q

scleral venous sinus

A

reabsorbs aqueous humor at the same rate at which it is secreted

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58
Q

where are the anterior and posterior chambers located?

A

located in the anterior cavity of the eye

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59
Q

lens

A

transparent structure composed of flattened compressed transparent cells called lens fibers

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60
Q

suspensory ligament

A

the ligament connected to the ciliary muscles of the ciliary body

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61
Q

what does contraction of the ciliary muscle do?

A

loosens the suspensory ligament and causes lens to become thicker/rounder to focus near objects

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62
Q

what does relaxation of ciliary muscle do?

A

muscle tightens the suspensory ligament and causes lens to flatten to focus on far objects

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63
Q

vitreous body

A

gelatinous substance that fills the vitreous chamber (posterior cavity) located behind lens

64
Q

what does the vitreous body maintain?

A

intraocular pressure; helps hold the retina against the wall of the eye and blood supply

65
Q

what are lens fibers filled with?

A

crystallins, which provides transparency to the lens

66
Q

cataracts

A

clouding of the lenses

67
Q

cataracts consists of….

A
  • lens fibers darken with age
  • fluid filled bubbles and clefts filled with debris appear between the fibers
68
Q

treatment for cataracts

A

replacing natural lens with plastic one

69
Q

what can cataracts be induced by? (5)

A
  • diabetes
  • smoking
  • drugs
  • ultraviolet radiation
  • certain viruses
70
Q

glaucoma

A

pressure within the eye due to obstruction of scleral venous sinus causing improper drainage of aqueous humor and increased intraocular pressure

71
Q

what does glaucoma cause?

A

this causes compression of blood vessels and lack of oxygen and death of retinal cells (peripheral vision is first affected)

72
Q

macular degeneration

A

death of photoreceptor cells in macula lutea (central part of the retina)

73
Q

what does macular degeneration cause?

A

loss of vision in the center of visual field

74
Q

can macular degeneration be cured?

A

no, but its progression can be slowed

75
Q

diabetic retinopathy

A

retinal degeneration caused by effects of diabetes mellitus; causes blockage of normal retinal blood vessels and growth of abnormal vessels and blood leakage into the posterior cavity

76
Q

what causes the most cases of adult blindness in the US?

A

diabetic retinopathy

77
Q

optic disc

A

medial to macula lutea where the ganglion cell axons converge and leave the eye as the optic nerve

78
Q

blind spot

A

the optic disc where no photoreceptor cells are located

79
Q

visual filling

A

brain fills in the blind spot area

80
Q

scotomas

A

abnormal blind spots (blind spots in areas in other than the optic disc)

81
Q

causes of scotomas (3)

A
  • compression of optic disc
  • damage to photoreceptors
  • damage to the visual pathway
82
Q

visual process

A

light enter the eye, focused on the retina, and produces a tiny inverted image

83
Q

what two sets of contractile elements control iris diameter?

A
  • pupillary constrictor
  • pupillary dilator
84
Q

pupillary constrictor

A

smooth muscle encircling the pupil

85
Q

parasympathetic stimulation to the pupillary constrictor does what?

A

narrows the pupil

86
Q

sympathetic stimulation to the pupillary dilator does what?

A

widens the pupil

87
Q

pupillary dilator

A

spoke-like myoepithelial cells located distal to the pupil compared to pupillary constrictor muscle

88
Q

what do pupil constriction and dilation occur in response to? (3)

A
  • emotions
  • changes in light intensity
  • when gaze shifts between distant and nearby objects
89
Q

photopupillary reflex

A

pupillary constriction in response to light

90
Q

refraction

A

bending of light =

91
Q

refractive light index

A

of a medium; how much a substance retards light rays

92
Q

the _____ refracts light more than the _____

A

cornea, lens

93
Q

astigmatism

A

condition where light passing through the cornea and lens is not refracted properly causing visual distortions

94
Q

emmetropia

A

normal vision where the eye is relaxed and focused on object more than 20ft away

95
Q

near response

A

adjustment to close-range vision

96
Q

three steps of near response

A
  1. convergence of eye
  2. constriction of pupils
  3. accommodation of lenses
97
Q

near response: convergence of the eyes

A

eyes orient their visual axis

98
Q

near response: constriction (miosis) of the pupil

A

blocks peripheral light rays and reduces spherical aberration

99
Q

spherical aberration

A

blurry edges

100
Q

near response: accommodation of the lens (3)

A

change in the curvature of the lens
- ciliary muscles contract, suspensory ligaments slacken, and lens takes more convex shape
- light is refracted more strongly and focused onto the retina

101
Q

hyperopia

A

farsightedness; far objects appear clear, but nearby objects are blurry

102
Q

presbyopia

A

age-related hyperopia in adults 40+

103
Q

myopia

A

nearsightedness; nearby objects appear clear but far objects are blurry

104
Q

pigmented layer (pigmented apithelium)

A

most posterior part of retina; absorbs stray light so visual image is not degraded

105
Q

neural components of the retina: photoreceptor cells

A

rods, cones, and certain ganglion cells

106
Q

photoreceptor cells

A

absorb light and generate a chemical electrical signal, but are not neurons

107
Q

bipolar cells

A

synapse with rods and cones, serve as first-order neurons that carry signal to ganglino cells

108
Q

ganglion cells

A

second-order neurons of the visual pathway; their axons form the optic nerve

109
Q

outer segment of rods and cones

A

points toward the wall of the eye, towards the pigmented layer, and contains modified cilium specialized to absorb light

110
Q

inner segment of rods and cones

A

facing the interior of the eye; contains organelles and gives rise to cell body and process that form synapse

111
Q

rods

A

responsible for night (scotopic) vision, produces images in shades of grey

112
Q

monochromatic vision

A

images produced by rods are in shades of grey

113
Q

rhodopsin

A

the visual pigment in the outer segment of rods

114
Q

cone

A

responsible for day (photopic) vision and color (trichromatic) vision

115
Q

the outer segment of cones contain discs that are plasma membrane infolding that contain…

A

pigments for light absorption

116
Q

where do rods and cones continually renew their discs?

A

new ones add to the proximal (basal) end of the outer segment, old discs shed from the distal tips of the cells and are phagocytized in the pigment epithelium

117
Q

horizontal cells

A

don’t form separate layers in the retina; modulates information from photoreceptors to bipolar cells

118
Q

amacrine cells

A

don’t form separate layers in the retina; modulates information from bipolar cells to ganglion cells

119
Q

neural convergence

A

multiple rods or cones synapse on one bipolar cells and multiple bipolar cells synapse on one ganglion cell

120
Q

retinitis pigmentosa

A

most common inherited visual problem; caused by a mutation in a visual pigment that results in photoreceptor cells death, and ultimately blindness

121
Q

two major parts of rhodopsin

A
  • opsin protein and retinene (retinal) derived from vitamin A
122
Q

where is opsin in rods?

A

embedded in disc membranes of the outer segment

123
Q

nyctalopia

A

night blindness, can be caused by a dietary vitamin A deficiency

124
Q

all rods contain a single kind of rhodopsin that _____ distinguish color

A

cannot

125
Q

cones contain a pigment called

A

photopsin

126
Q

the different parts of opsin in cones contain

A

different amino acid sequences that determine wavelengths of light absorbed

127
Q

three types of cones

A

red, green, blue

128
Q

how do red, green, and blue differ?

A

each type expresses a different type of opsin, therefore absorbs slightly different wavelengths of light

129
Q

how does the brain determine color?

A

it compares the response levels across all three types of cones to determine color

130
Q

light adaptation

A

adjustment in vision when moving from a dark or dim area into brighter light

131
Q

what is the time needed for pigment bleaching to adjust retinal sensitivity to high light intensity?

A

5 to 10 minutes

132
Q

dark adaptation

A

adjustment to vision when moving from a bright area into a dark or dim area

133
Q

how long does it take for night vision to start working?

A

1-2 minutes

134
Q

when does night vision reach peak sensitivity?

A

20-30 minutes

135
Q

duplicity theory of vision

A

a single receptor system cannot produce both high sensitivity and high resolution; explains why we need rods and cones

136
Q

spatial summation

A

onge ganglion cell receives info from 1mm^2 of retina producing only a coarse image

137
Q

edges of the retina have widely spaced rods that act as

A

motion detectors; low-resolution systems only, cannot resolve finely detailed images

138
Q

what happens to rods when light is bright enough to have color vision?

A

rods are photobleached and not contributing to vision

139
Q

the fovea has no, what?

A

no neuronal convergence, each cone has its “private line to the brain”

140
Q

color blindness

A

hereditary alteration of lack or one photopsin or another

141
Q

red-green color blindness

A

results from a lack of either red or green cones since the individual has difficulty distinguishing shades of red and green

142
Q

stereoscopic vision (stereopsis)

A

depth perception, the ability to judge distance to objects

143
Q

what does stereoscopic vision require?

A

two eyes with overlapping visual fields which allows each eye to look at the same object from different angles

144
Q

fixation point

A

point in space which the eyes are focused

145
Q

first-order neurons of the retina

A

bipolar cells

146
Q

second-order neurons of the retina

A

retinal ganglion cells

147
Q

axons exiting the back of each eye leave the eye as which nerve?

A

the optic nerve, CN II

148
Q

hemidecussation

A

half the fibers from each optic nerve cross over at the optic chiasm

149
Q

optic tracts

A

fibers come together after the chiasm to form the right and left of these

150
Q

the optic tracts pass laterally around the hypothalamus with most of their axons ending where?

A

lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus

151
Q

third-order neurons arise and form the _____ _____ of fibers in the white matter of the cerebrum

A

optic radiation

152
Q

what does the optic radiation do?

A

project to the primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe where conscious visual sensation occurs

153
Q

where do some fibers of the optic radiation project? why?

A

hypothalamus to affect circadian rhythm

154
Q

a few optic nerve fibers project to the midbrain and terminate in the _____ _____ and _____ _____

A

superior colliculi and pretectal nuclei

155
Q

what does the superior colliculi control?

A

controls the visual reflexes and extrinsic eye muscles

156
Q

what are the pretectal nuclei involved in?

A

photopupillary and accommodation reflexes

Anatomy and Physiology II (19 decks)

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