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Anatomy and Physiology II > Lesson 13-14a Part 2 - Respiratory System > Flashcards

Lesson 13-14a Part 2 - Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

breathing depends on…

A

repetitive stimulation of skeletal muscles from the brain

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2
Q

breathing is controlled at two levels of the brain

A
  • one is cerebral and conscious
  • other is unconscious and automatic
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3
Q

automatic, unconscious breathing is controlled by…

A

respiratory

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4
Q

two pairs of respiratory centers are located where?

A

medulla oblongata?

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5
Q

which respiratory center is the primary generator of the respiratory rhythm?

A

ventral respiratory group (VRG)

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6
Q

where is the ventral respiratory group (VRG) located?

A

medulla oblongata

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7
Q

the ventral respiratory group (VRG) is a collection of reverberating circuits of…

A
  • inspiratory (I) neurons
  • expiratory (E) neurons
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8
Q

what rhythm does the VRG produce?

A

12 breaths per minute

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9
Q

the dorsal respiratory group (DRG) is also called…

A

the inspiratory center

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10
Q

what does the inspiratory center stimulate?

A

inspiratory muscles

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11
Q

which respiratory group functions in both quiet and forced breathing?

A

dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

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12
Q

the dorsal respiratory group (DRG) modifies what? how?

A

(1) the rate and depth of breathing by (2) affecting the VRG

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13
Q

the dorsal respiratory group receives influence from…(4)

A

external sources like the pons, medulla, receptors in the lungs, and higher brain centers

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14
Q

central chemoreceptors

A

brainstem neurons that respond to changes in pH of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

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15
Q

the pH of cerebrospinal fluid reflects what?

A

the CO2 level in the blood

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16
Q

the lower the pH in the CSF the……in blood?

A

more CO2 in blood

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17
Q

central chemoreceptors regulate respiration to maintain…(2)

A

stable pH/stable CO2 levels in blood

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18
Q

where are peripheral chemoreceptors?

A

carotid and aortic bodies

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19
Q

what do peripheral chemoreceptors respond to? (3)

A

O2 and CO2 content and the pH of blood

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20
Q

stretch receptors are located where in the lungs? (2)

A
  • smooth muscle of bronchi and bronchioles
  • visceral pleura
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21
Q

what do stretch receptors in the lungs respond to?

A

inflation of the lungs

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22
Q

inflation (Hering-Breuer) reflex

A

protective reflex that inhibits inspiratory neurons and stops inspiration to stop excessive inflation/stretching of lung tissue

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23
Q

what is the Hering-Breuer reflex triggered by?

A

excessive inflation

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24
Q

irritant receptors

A

nerve endings amid the epithelial cells of the airway

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25
Q

irritant receptors respond to (6)

A
  • smoke
  • dust
  • pollen
  • chemical fumes
  • cold air
  • excess mucus
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26
Q

irritant receptors trigger protective reflexes such as…(4)

A
  • bronchoconstriction
  • shallower breathing
  • breath-holding
  • coughin
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27
Q

apnea

A

breath-holding

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28
Q

where does voluntary control over breathing originate?

A

in the motor cortex of the frontal lobe of the cerebrum

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29
Q

what does the motor cortex of the frontal lobe of the cerebrum send?

A

impulses down corticospinal tracts to respiratory neurons in the spinal cord, bypassing the brainstem

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30
Q

the breaking point

A

when CO2 levels rise to a point where automatic controls override one’s voluntary will

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31
Q

respiratory airflow is governed by…

A

the same principles of slow, pressure, and resistance as blood flow

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32
Q

the flow of a fluid is _____ proportional to the pressure difference between two points

A

directly

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33
Q

the flow of fluid is _____ proportional to the resistance

A

inversely

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34
Q

atmospheric (barometric) pressure

A

the weight of the air above us

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35
Q

where is atmospheric pressure lower?

A

higher elevations

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36
Q

intrapulmonary pressure

A

air pressure within the lungs

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37
Q

intrapulmonary pressure changes with lung volume according to what law?

A

Boyle’s law
- P = 1/V

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38
Q

Boyle’s Law

A

at a constant temperature, the pressure of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume
- P = 1/V

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39
Q

if the lungs contain a quantity of gas, and the lung volume increases, what happens to internal pressure?

A

it falls

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40
Q

what happens if the intrapulmonary pressure falls below atmospheric pressure?

A

air moves into the lungs

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41
Q

what happens if intrapulmonary pressure rises above atmospheric pressure?

A

air moved out of the lungs

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42
Q

during inspiration, the lungs expand and…

A

follows the expansion of the thoracic cage due to the intrapleural pressure

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43
Q

intrapleural pressure

A

the slightly negative pressure that exists between the two pleural layers (parietal and viseral)

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44
Q

what causes the lungs and chest wall to be pulled in opposite directions? (2)

A

(1) recoil of lung tissue and (2) tissues of the thoracic cage

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45
Q

the potential space between the parietal and visceral pleurae contains?

A

a small amount of watery serous fluid called pleural fluid

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46
Q

how do the layers of the pleura stay together?

A

cohesion of water

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47
Q

what happens to the pleura when the ribs swing upward/outward during inspiration?

A

the pleura follows!

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48
Q

in quiet breathing , the thoracic cage moves a few _____ in each direction, which is enough to increase its volume by 500ml

A

mm (millimeter)

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49
Q

the _____ pleura clings to and follows the _____ pleura

A

visceral, parietal

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50
Q

what happens when the visceral pleura stretches?

A

the alveoli near the surface of the lungs stretches, and because they are coupled to deeper alveoli they got pulled too

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51
Q

as alveoli increase volume, the ______ (______) pressure drops below atmospheric pressure

A

intrapulmonary (alveolar)

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52
Q

another force that expands lungs is…

A

the warming of inhaled air

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53
Q

Charles’s Law

A

the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature

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54
Q

is expiration a passive or active process in quiet expiration?

A

passive

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55
Q

how is expiration achieved in quiet expiration?

A

mainly by elastic recoil of the thoracic cage

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56
Q

elastic recoil of the thoracic cage _____ the lungs

A

compresses

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57
Q

in normal lungs, the intrapleural pressure is always _____ in both inhalation and exhalation

A

negative

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58
Q

pneumothorax

A

presence of air in the pleural cavity

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59
Q

describe how a pneumothorax occurs (2)

A
  • thoracic wall is punctured
  • inspiration sucks air through the wound into the pleural cavity
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60
Q

the potential space a pneumothorax creates causes what?

A

an air-filled cavity causing the loss of negative intrapleural pressure allowing the lungs to recoil and collapse

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61
Q

atelectasis

A

collapse of part of all of a lung

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62
Q

potential causes of atelectasis (4)

A
  • lung tumor
  • aneurysm
  • swollen lymph node
  • aspirated object into airways
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63
Q

how does an aspirated object lead to atelectasis?

A

an airway obstruction causes blood to absorb gases from the alveoli causing a decrease in alveolar volume and subsequent alveolar collapse

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64
Q

two factors influence airway resistance

A
  • bronchiole diameter
  • pulmonary compliance
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65
Q

bronchodilation

A

increase in diameter of bronchus or bronchiole

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66
Q

bronchoconstriction

A

decrease in diameter of bronchus or bronchiole

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67
Q

pulmonary compliance

A

ease with which the lungs can expand; change in lung volume relative to a given pressure change

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68
Q

compliance is reduced by…

A

degenerative lung diseases in which the lungs are stiffened by scar tissue

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69
Q

lung diseases that cause scar tissue (2)

A
  • tuberculosis
  • black lung disease
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70
Q

compliance of the lungs is limited by…

A

the surface tension of the water film inside the alveoli

71
Q

what does surfactant do?

A

disrupts hydrogen bonds between water molecules and thus reduces the surface tension, making them easier to fill with air

72
Q

surfactant is secreted by..

A

great cells of the alveoli

73
Q

infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS)

A

premature babies lacking surfactant are treated with artificial surfactant until they can make their own

74
Q

what air is available for gas exchange?

A

the air that enters the alveoli

75
Q

about how much air fills the conducting zone of the airway?

A

150ml

76
Q

anatomical dead space

A

the conducting zone of the respiratory system in which no gas exchange occurs

77
Q

the anatomical dead space can be altered somewhat by what?

A

sympathetic dilation which increases dead space but allows greater flow

78
Q

spirometry

A

measuring pulmonary ventilation

79
Q

spirometry aids in what?

A

diagnosis and assessment of restrictive and obstructive lung disorders

80
Q

restrictive disorders include (3)

A
  • black lung disease
  • tuberculosis
  • any disease that produces pulmonary fibrosis
81
Q

restrictive disorders

A

reduction in pulmonary compliance, limiting how much lungs can inflate

82
Q

obstructive disorders of the lungs

A

interfere with airflow by narrowing or blocking the airway making it harder to inhale or exhale a given amount of air

83
Q

obstructive disorders include (2)

A
  • asthma
  • chronic bronchitis
84
Q

_____ bombines both elements of both restrictive and obstructive disorders

A

emphysema

85
Q

eupnea

A

relaxed, quiet breathing

86
Q

apnea

A

temporary cessation of breathing

87
Q

dyspnea

A

labored, gasping breath/shortness of breath

88
Q

hyperpnea

A

increased rate and depth of breathing in response to exercise, pain, or other conditions

89
Q

hyperventilation

A

increased pulmonary ventilation in excess of metabolic demand

90
Q

hypoventilation

A

reduced pulmonary ventilation leading to an increase in blood CO2

91
Q

kussmaul respiration

A

deep, rapid breathing often induced by acidosis, diabetes-related ketoacidosis

92
Q

air contains

A
  • 78.6% nitrogen
  • 20.9% oxygen
  • 0.04% carbon dioxide
  • 0-4% water vapor
93
Q

air contains minor amounts of…(5)

A
  • argon
  • neon
  • helium
  • methane
  • ozone
94
Q

Dalton’s Law

A

total atmospheric pressure in the sum of the contributions of the individual gases

95
Q

partial pressure

A

the separate contribution of each gas in a mixture

96
Q

composition of inspired and alveolar air differs because of three influences

A
  • air is humidified by contact with mucus membranes
  • alveolar air mixes with residual air
  • alveolar air exchanges O2 and CO2 with blood
97
Q

air is humidified by contact with mucous membranes

A

alveolar PH2O is more than 10x higher than inhaled air

98
Q

alveolar air mixed with residual air

A

oxygen gets diluted and air is enriched with CO2

99
Q

alveolar air exchanges O2 and CO2 with blood (2)

A
  • PO2 of alveolar air is about 65% that of inspired air
  • PCO2 is more than 130x higher
100
Q

alveolar gas exchange

A

the movement of O2 and CO2 across the respiratory membrane

101
Q

for oxygen to get into the blood, it must…

A

dissolve in the alveolar epithelium (water) and pass through the respiratory membrane separating the air from the bloodstream

102
Q

for carbon dioxide to leave the blood, it must…

A

pass the other way and then diffuse out of the water film into the alveolar air

103
Q

gases diffuse down their own gradients until…

A

the partial pressure of each gas in the air is equal to its partial pressure in water

104
Q

what is the first step in alveolar gas exchange?

A

air in the alveolus is in contact with a film of water covering the alveolar epithelium

105
Q

Henry’s Law

A

at the air-water interface, for a given temperature, the amount of gas that dissolves in the water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in air

106
Q

the _____ the PO2 in the alveolar air, the ____ O2 the blood picks up

A

greater, more

107
Q

because the blood arriving at the alveolus has…

A

a higher PCO2 than air, so it releases the CO2 in the air

108
Q

at the alveolus, the blood is said to

A

unload CO2 and load O2

109
Q

the unloading of CO2 and loading involves…

A

erythrocytes

110
Q

efficiency of the alveolar gas exchange depends on…

A

how long an RBC stays in the alveolar capillaries

111
Q

how long does a RBC need to stay in the alveolar capillaries to reach equilibrium?

A

0.25 seconds

112
Q

at rest, RBC spend _____ seconds in the alveolar capillaries

A

0.75

113
Q

in strenuous exercise, RBCs stay for ___ seconds

A

0.3

114
Q

each gas in a mixture behaves _____

A

independently, one gas does not influence the diffusion of another

115
Q

variables affecting alveolar gas exchange efficiency (5)

A
  • membrane thickness
  • membrane surface area
  • solubility of gases
  • pressure gradients of the gases
  • ventilation-perfusion coupling
116
Q

normally, the PO2 is…

A

= 104 mmHg in the alveolar air versus 40 mmHg in blood

117
Q

normally, the PCO2 is…

A

= 46 mmHg in blood arriving versus 40 mmHg in blood arriving versus 40 mmHg in alveolar air

118
Q

how do pressure gradients differ at high altitudes?

A

partial pressure of all atmospheric gases are lower; pressure gradient for oxygen is lower so less diffuses into blood

119
Q

hyperbaric oxygen therapy

A

treatment with oxygen at greater than 1 atm of pressure

120
Q

what is hyperbaric oxygen therapy used for? (2)

A
  • gangrene
  • carbon monoxide poisoning
121
Q

by the time blood reaches the left atrium, the PO2 is…

A

95 mmHg

122
Q

why is PO2 95 mmHg by the time it reaches the left atrium?

A

caused by a mixing of oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein with deoxygenated blood from the bronchial vein

123
Q

variables affecting alveolar gas exchange efficiency: solubility of gases

A

equal amounts of O2 and CO2 are exchanged across the respiratory membrane because CO2 is much more soluble and diffuses more rapidly

124
Q

CO2 is _____ time as soluble as O2

A

20

125
Q

what disease decrease surface area for gas exchange? (3)

A
  • emphysema
  • lung cancer
  • tuberculosis
126
Q

the respiratory membrane is only _____ thick

A

0.5um

127
Q

what would happen if the respiratory membrane was thicker?

A

gases have father to travel between blood and air and cannot equilibrate fast enough to keep up with blood flow

128
Q

what diseases cause thickening of the respiratory membrane? (2)

A
  • pulmonary edema
  • pneumonia
129
Q

ventilation-perfusion coupling

A

gas exchange requires both good ventilation of alveolus and good perfusion of the capillaries

130
Q

pulmonary blood vessels change diameter depending on…

A

air flow to an area of the lungs

131
Q

bronchi change diameter depending on…

A

blood flow to an area of the lungs

132
Q

if an area of the lungs is well perfused, what occurs?

A

bronchodilation

133
Q

gas transport

A

the process of carrying gases from the alveoli to the systemic tissues and vice versa

134
Q

how much O2 does blood carry?

A

20ml of O2 per deciliter

135
Q

what molecule is specialized for oxygen transport?

A

hemoglobin

136
Q

oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)

A

O2 bound to hemoglobin

136
Q

deoxyhemoglobin (HHb)

A

hemoglobin with no O2

137
Q

oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

A

illustrates relationship between hemoglobin saturation and ambient PO2

138
Q

why does the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve look the way it does?

A

occurs because when hemoglobin binds each oxygen, it makes it easier to bind the next one

139
Q

three forms in which carbon dioxide is transported in the body

A
  • carbonic acid
  • carbaminohemoglobin
  • dissolved gas
140
Q

90% of CO2 is carried as…

A

carbonic acid (H2CO3)

141
Q

5% of carbon dioxide is carried as either…(2)

A

dissolved gas or carbaminohemoglobin

142
Q

70% of exchanged CO2 comes from what form of CO2?

A

carbonic acid

143
Q

23% of exchanged CO2 comes from what form of CO2?

A

carbaminohemoglobin

144
Q

7% of exchanged CO2 comes from what form of CO2?

A

dissolved in plasma

145
Q

blood gives up the dissolved CO2 gas and CO2 from _____ more easily than CO2 in _____

A

carbaminohemoglobin, bicarbonate

146
Q

carbon monoxide (CO)

A

colorless, odorless gas in cigarette smoke, engine exhaust, and fumes from gas furnaces

147
Q

_____ competes for the O2 binding site on hemoglobin (Hb)

A

carbon monoxide

148
Q

what is hemoglobin called when carbon monoxide binds to it?

A

carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO)

149
Q

does CO or O2 bind to hemoglobin more tightly?

A

CO

150
Q

treatment for CO binding to Hb in smokers (3)

A
  • pure oxygen
  • hyperbaric oxygen therapy
  • blood transfusion
151
Q

systemic gas exchange

A

unloading of O2 and loading of CO2 at systemic capillaries

152
Q

carbon dioxide loading (2)

A
  • CO2 diffuses into the blood
  • carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the reaction to bicarbonate and hydrogen ions
153
Q

where is carbonic anhydrase found?

A

red blood cells

154
Q

chloride shift

A

bicarbonate pumped out of RBC in exchange for a chloride ion from plasma

155
Q

how is the chloride shift performed?

A

an antiport protein called the chloride-bicarbonate exchanger

156
Q

H+ binding to _____ reduces its affinity for O2

A

HbO2 (oxyhemoglobin); tends to make hemoglobin release oxygen

157
Q

HbO2 arrives at systemic capillaries _____% saturated and leave _____% saturated

A

97, 75

158
Q

utilization coefficient

A

22% of HbO2’s load is given up

159
Q

gas exchange reactions that occur in the lungs are _____ of systemic gas exchange

A

reverse

160
Q

CO2 unloading in the lungs

A

as Hb loads O2, its affinity for H+ decreases causing it to dissociate from Hb and bind with HCO3-

161
Q

reverse chloride shift

A

HCO3- diffuses back into RBC in exchange for Cl-, free CO2 that is generated diffuses into alveolus to be exhaled

162
Q

hemoglobin unloads O2 to match….

A

metabolic needs of different states of activity of the tissues

163
Q

four factors that adjust the rate of O2 unloading to match need

A
  1. ambient PO2
  2. temperature
  3. ambient pH
  4. BPG
164
Q

four factors that adjust the rate of O2 unloading to match need: ambient PO2

A

active tissues have a low PO2 causing Hb to release O2

165
Q

four factors that adjust the rate of O2 unloading to match need: temperature

A

active tissues have a higher temperature that promotes Hb to unload O2

166
Q

four factors that adjust the rate of O2 unloading to match need: ambient pH

A

active tissue pH is higher due to higher concentrations of CO2, lowering blood pH which promotes unloading of O2

167
Q

Bohr effect

A

describes hemoglobin’s lower affinity for oxygen secondary to increases in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide and/or decreased blood pH

168
Q

four factors that adjust the rate of O2 unloading to match need: BPG

A

RBCs produce a metabolic intermediate of anaerobic metabolism called BPG which binds to Hb, unloading O2 in the process

169
Q

BPG aka

A

bisphosphoglycerate

170
Q

factors that raise BPG and promote O2 unloading (5)

A
  • raised body temp (fever)
  • thyroxine
  • growth hormone
  • testosterone
  • epinephrine
171
Q

describe the effect of temperature on HbO2

A

as temperature increases, more Hb unloads O2

172
Q

describe the effect of pH on HbO2

A

as pH lowers, HbO2 releases more O2

Anatomy and Physiology II (19 decks)

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