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Anatomy and Physiology II > Lesson 1 - General Senses > Flashcards

Lesson 1 - General Senses Flashcards

1
Q

receptor

A

structure specialized to detect a stimulus

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2
Q

some receptors are _____ _____ _____

A

bare nerve endings

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3
Q

sense organs

A

structure that combines nerve tissue surrounded by other tissues that enhance response to a certain type of stimulus

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4
Q

accessory tissue of a sense organ may include… (3)

A

added epithelium, muscular, or connective tissue

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5
Q

sense organs range in _____ and _____

A

size, complexity

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6
Q

transduction

A

the conversion of one form of energy to another

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7
Q

a fundamental purpose of any sensory receptor

A

convert stimulus energy into nerve signals

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8
Q

two stages of the sensory process

A
  1. sensation
  2. perception
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9
Q

sensation

A

sensory receptor detects stimulus and creates a small, local, electrical charge called the receptor potential

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10
Q

if the receptor potential is high enough…

A

the neuron fires action potentials and nerve signals to the brain

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11
Q

perception

A

conscious experience and interpretation of a stimulus

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12
Q

not all sensations lead to _____

A

perception

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13
Q

sensory receptors transmit four kinds of information

A

modality, location, intensity, and duration

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14
Q

modality

A

type of stimulus or the perception it produces

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15
Q

what is modality determined by?

A

which region of the brain is “wired” to receive the information

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16
Q

information is sent to the CNS via _____ _____

A

labeled line

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17
Q

labeled line

A

the electrical signal of each modality is passed along a chain of neurons to the CNS so that the information is separated from each other

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18
Q

location

A

where a stimulus is located

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19
Q

what is location encoded by?

A

which nerve fibers are firing

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20
Q

receptive field

A

the area within which a sensory neuron detects stimuli

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21
Q

the size of the receptive field determines what?

A

resolution; the ability to distinguish between two close-together stimuli

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22
Q

intensity

A

strength of stimulus

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23
Q

intensity is encoded in three ways

A
  1. which fibers respond
  2. how many fibers respond
  3. hot fast the fibers are firing
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24
Q
  1. intensity - which fibers respond (2)
A

weak stimulus can only activate most sensitive neurons
strong stimuli also activates less sensitive neurons with a higher threshold

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25
Q
  1. intensity - how many fibers respond
A

more intense stimuli activate more neurons

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26
Q
  1. intensity - how fast fibers are firing
A

as stimulus intensity rises, firing frequency increases

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27
Q

duration

A

how long a stimulus lasts

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28
Q

what is duration encoded by?

A

changes in firing frequency over time

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29
Q

sensory adaptation

A

if a stimulus is prolonged, firing of the neuron gets slower over time and we become less aware of it

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30
Q

phasic receptors (2)

A

adapt quickly; burst of signals when stimulus starts, then reduces or stops signaling even if stimulus continues

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31
Q

examples of phasic receptors (3)

A

smell, hair movement, cutaneous pressure

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32
Q

tonic receptors (2)

A

adapt slowly; action potentials continue more steadily while stimulus is present

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33
Q

examples of tonic receptors (4)

A

body position, muscle tension, joint motion, pain

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34
Q

classification of receptors by stimulus modality (5)

A
  1. photoreceptors
  2. thermoreceptors
  3. nociceptors
  4. chemoreceptors
  5. mechanoreceptors
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35
Q

photoreceptors (2)

A

located in the eyes and respond to light, provides the sense of vision

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36
Q

thermoreceptors (3)

A

respond to heat and cold, are free nerve endings, and use the same pathways as pain sensation

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37
Q

where are thermoreceptors located? (4)

A

the dermis, skeletal muscle, the liver, and hypothalamus

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38
Q

what is the pathway in which thermoreceptors send information? (3)

A

reticular formation in the brainstem -> thalamus -> primary sensory cortext

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39
Q

nociceptors (2)

A

respond to noxious stimuli and are free nerve endings with large receptive fields

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40
Q

where are nociceptors commonly found? (4)

A

superficial portions of the skin, joint capsules, within the periostea of bones, around the walls of blood vessels

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41
Q

analgesia

A

inability to feel pain

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42
Q

hyperalgesia

A

increased sensitivity to pain

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43
Q

nociceptors may be sensitive to… (3)

A

temperature extremes, mechanical damage, dissolved chemicals

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44
Q

pain information can be sent to the CNS by two types of axons

A
  1. type A
  2. type C
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45
Q

type A axons

A

large myelinated fibers that are fast, sends prickling/fast pain to the CNS to trigger somatic reflexes before reaching primary somatosensory cortex

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46
Q

type C axons

A

small unmyelinated fibers that are slow, sends burning/aching/slow pain and activated the reticular formation and thalamus - not very specific to exact location or area affected

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47
Q

chemoreceptors

A

respond to only water-soluble and lipid-soluble substances dissolved in fluid

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48
Q

chemoreceptors can monitor what three things in the blood

A

pH, carbon dioxide, and oxygen levels in arterial blood

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49
Q

carotid bodies

A

located near the origin of the internal carotid arteries on each side of the neck; chemoreceptor

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50
Q

aortic bodies

where and what is it?

A

located between the major branches of the aortic arch; chemoreceptor

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51
Q

mechanoreceptors

A

respond to stimuli that physically distort the receptor’s plasma membrane; contains mechanically-gates ion channels that open/close in response to stretching, compression or twisting

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52
Q

three classes of mechanoreceptors

A
  1. tactile receptors
  2. baroreceptors
  3. proprioceptors
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53
Q

tactile receptors

A

include fine touch, pressure receptors, and crude touch receptors

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54
Q

tactile receptors provide detailed information about the stimulus, including… (5)

A
  1. exact location
  2. shape
  3. size
  4. texture
  5. movement at the location
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55
Q

two characteristics of fine touch and pressure receptors

A

very sensitive and have a relatively narrow receptive field

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56
Q

three characteristics of crude touch and pressure receptors

A
  1. less sensitive
  2. have a relatively large receptive field, poor localization of stimulus
  3. provides little information about the stimulus
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57
Q

baroreceptors

A

monitors change in pressure; free nerve endings that branch with elastic tissue

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58
Q

where can you find baroreceptors? (2)

A

the walls of distensible organs such as blood vessels, and digestive organs

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59
Q

proprioceptors

A

monitors the position of joints, tension in tendons and ligaments, and the amount of skeletal muscle contraction

60
Q

three major groups of proprioceptors

A
  1. receptors in join capsules
  2. Golgi tendon organs
  3. muscles spindles
61
Q
  1. proprioceptors - receptors in joint capsules (3)
A

free nerve endings that detect pressure, tension, movement at the joint

62
Q
  1. proprioceptors - Golgi tendon organs (2)
A

located between skeletal muscle and its tendon; monitor external tension generated during skeletal muscle contraction and are stimulated by tension in the tendon

63
Q
  1. proprioceptors - muscle spindles (2)
A

monitor skeletal muscle length; used to trigger stretch reflexes

64
Q

unencapsulated nerve endings

A

dendrites with no connective tissue wrapping

65
Q

free nerve endings

what are they? what do they detect?

A

tonic receptors with small receptive fields that are bare dendrites that detect temperature and pain (warm/cold receptors and nociceptors)

66
Q

tactile (Merkel) discs

A

tonic receptors with small receptive fields that are flattened nerve endings that terminate at tactile cells in the basal layer of the epidermis; very sensitive and detect light, touch, texture, edges, shapes

67
Q

hair receptors (root hair plexuses)

actual hair

A

phasic receptors that are dendrites coiled around a hair follicle and respond to movements of the hair, are very sensitive

68
Q

types of unencapsulated nerve endings (3)

A
  1. free nerve endings
  2. tactile (Merkel) discs
  3. hair receptors (root hair plexuses)
69
Q

encapsulated nerve endings

A

nerve fibers wrapped in glial cells or connective tissue; wrapping enhances sensitivity of selectivity of response

70
Q

types of encapsulated nerve endings (4)

A
  1. tactile (Meissner) corpuscles
  2. end (Krause) bulb
  3. bulbous (Ruffini) corpuscles
  4. lamellar (Pacinian) corpuscles
71
Q

tactile (Meissner) corpuscles

A

two or three nerve fibers within a fluid filled capsule of flattened Schwann cells

72
Q

end (Krause) bulbs

A

sensory nerve fiber surrounded by a connective tissue sheath

73
Q

what are tactile (Meissner) corpuscles linked to? (6)

A

linked to the edges of dermal papillae, especially areas of hairless skin like the fingertips, palms, eyelids, nipples, genitals

74
Q

bulbous (Ruffini) corpuscles (2)

A

flattened, elongated capsules containing a few myelinated axons in an incomplete fibrous capsule; tonic receptors located in the reticular layer of the dermis

75
Q

what do bulbous (Ruffini) corpuscles detect? (5)

A

heavy touch, pressure, stretching of skin, deformation of fingertips, and joint movement

76
Q

lamellar (Pacinian) corpuscules

A

large, ovoid receptos with a single dendrite surrounded by layers of flattened Schwann cells and fibroblasts

77
Q

what do lamellar (Pacinian) corpuscles detect?

A

they are phasic receptors that detects deep pressure and vibration, most sensitive to pulsing or high-frequency vibration

78
Q

where are lamellar (Pacinian) corpuscles located? (5)

A

found in the periosteum of bone, joint capsules, some viscera, and deep in the dermis especially of the hands, feel, breasts, and genitals

79
Q

exteroceptors

A

sense stimuli external to the body

80
Q

exteroceptors include receptors for…(8)

A

receptors for vision, hearing, taste, smell, and cutaneous sensations like touch, heat, cold, and pain

81
Q

interoceptors

A

detect internal stimuli

82
Q

where are interoceptors located? (3)

A

stomach, bladder, intestines

83
Q

what do interceptors sense? (4)

A

stretch, pressure, visceral pain, nausea

84
Q

proprioceptors

A

sense body position and movements, purely somatic sensation

85
Q

where are proprioceptors located? (3)

A

muscles, tendons, joint capsules

86
Q

general (somatosensory/somesthetic) senses

A

widely distributed in skin, muscles, tendons, joints, viscera; receptors may be simple, and some are just bare dendrites

87
Q

special senses

A

limited to head, innervated by cranial nerves, and involve complex sense organs

88
Q

afferent division of the nervous system

A

includes receptors that detect stimuli and replay the sensory information towards the CNS

89
Q

efferent division of the nervous system

A

include motor neurons that send commands to effectors through motor tracts or nerves taking information away from the CNS

90
Q

bundles of axons located in the PNS

A

nerves

91
Q

clusters of cell bodies located in the CNS

A

nuclei

92
Q

bundles of axons located in the CNS

A

tracts

93
Q

somatic nervous system

A

motor neurons and pathways that provide voluntary control of skeletal muscles

94
Q

somatic motor commands travel from motor center in the brain along these pathways (3)

A
  • motor nuclei (CNS)
  • tracts (CNS)
  • nerves (PNS)
95
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

sends involuntary commands to viscera

96
Q

two divisions of the autonomic nervous system

A

sympathetic and parasympathetic

97
Q

sensory projection (2)

A

transmission of information from receptor to specific locations in the cerebral cortex; signals travel along projection pathways

98
Q

most somatosensory signals travel by way of three neurons

A
  1. first-order neuron
  2. second-order neuron
  3. third-order neuron
99
Q

first-order neuron (4)

A
  • signals from the head travel to pons/medulla via cranial nerves
  • signals from below the head enters the posterior horn of the spinal cord via dorsal root of the spinal nerves
  • touch, pressure, and proprioception fibers are large, myelinated, fast
  • heat and cold fibers are small, unmyelinated, slower
100
Q

second-order neuron (2)

A
  • decussate (cross) to opposite side (contralateral) in spinal cord, medulla, or pons
  • end in thalamus, except for proprioception which ends in the cerebellum
101
Q

third-order neuron

where do they span?

A

thalamus to primary somatosensory cortex of cerebrum

102
Q

three major somatic sensory pathways

A
  1. spinothalamic pathway
  2. posterior column pathway
  3. spinocerebellar pathway
103
Q

spinothalamic pathway

what info does it provide?

A

provides sensations of poorly localized (crude) touch, pressure, pain, and temperature

104
Q

spinothalamic pathway: first-order neurons

A

axons of the first-order sensory neurons enter the spinal cord and synapse on second-order neurons within the posterior grey horns

105
Q

spinothalamic pathway: second-order neurons

A

they cross to the opposite side of the spinal cord and then ascends up the spinal cord within the anterior or lateral spinothalamic tracts

106
Q

spinothalamic pathway - anterior tracts

what info do they carry?

A

carry crude touch and pressure

107
Q

spinothalamic pathway - lateral tracts

what info do they carry?

A

carry pain and temperature

108
Q

spinothalamic pathway: third-order neurons

A

they synapse in the thalamus, the information is sorted and processed before being transmitted to the primary somatosensory cortex

109
Q

posterior column pathway

what info does it carry?

A

carries highly localizes (fine) touch pressure, vibration, and proprioception

110
Q

posterior column pathway: first-order neurons

A

enter the spinal cord and ascend up on the ipsilateral (same) side of the spinal cord and synapse onto the second-order neurons at the medulla oblongata

111
Q

posterior column pathway: second-order neurons

A

project axons that cross to the contralateral side and ascend to the thalamus

112
Q

posterior column pathway: third-order neurons

A

located in the thalamus, receives input from second order neurons, processes the info, and sends the information to the somatosensory cortex

113
Q

spinocerebellar pathway

p

A

carries proprioceptive info from skeletal muscles, tendons, and joints; information terminated at the cerebellum for processing

114
Q

pain

A

unpleasant perception of actual or potential tissue damage

115
Q

what does the perception of pain usually lead to?

A

evasive action

116
Q

what is pain perception lost from? (4)

diseases and injuries?

A

leprosy, diabetes mellitus, nerve damage, neglect of injuries

117
Q

peripheral neuropathy

A

peripheral nerve damage

118
Q

nociceptive pain

A

stems from tissue injury; occurs when nociceptors are activated

119
Q

neuropathic pain

A

stems from injuries to nerves, spinal cord, meninges, or brain

120
Q

visceral pain

A

arises from internal organs; diffuse, dull, and hard to locate

121
Q

visceral pain creates sensations of… (3)

A

squeezing, cramping, nausea

122
Q

what is visceral pain caused by? (3)

A

stretch, chemical irritation, ischemia

123
Q

deep somatic pain

where does it come from?

A

arises from bones, joints, muscles

124
Q

examples of deep somatic pain (3)

A

arthritis, sprains, bone fractures

125
Q

deep somatic pain can be caused by

A

excessive stretch, like a sprained ankle

126
Q

superficial somatic pain

A

usually arises from the skin

127
Q

examples of superficial somatic pain (3)

A

cuts, burns, insect stings

128
Q

fast pain

A

immediate, sharp, localized pain

129
Q

fast pain is carried by type _____ fibers

A

A; very fast

130
Q

discriminative pain

A

aka fast pain; we can tell exactly where its coming from

131
Q

slow pain is carried by type _____ fibers

A

C; slower, but still fast

132
Q

slow pain

A

burning, dull, aching pain, less localized

133
Q

pain signals from the head travel to the _____ via _____ _____

A

brainstem, cranial nerves

134
Q

pain signals from the head travel through these cranial nerves (4)

A

5, 7, 9, and 10

135
Q

pain signals from the neck and below travel through the ______ tract

A

spinothalamic tract

136
Q

referred pain

A

pain in viscera often perceived as originating from superficial sites

137
Q

what causes referred pain?

A

convergence of neural pathways in the CNS, and the brain cannot distinguish the source

138
Q

endogenous opioids

A

analgesic peptides secreted by the CNS, pituitary, digestive tract, and other organs; act as neuromodulators and block pain

139
Q

neuromodulators that block pain and give pleasure

A

enkephalins, endorphins, dynorphins

140
Q

opioids block pain through what process?

A

spinal gating

141
Q

spinal gating (3)

A

stops pain signals at the posterior horn, interneurons are stimulated to release enkephalins, and it inhibits second-order pain neurons

142
Q

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

A

progressive degenerative disorder affecting motor neurons in the spinal cord, brain stem, and cerebral hemisphere

143
Q

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS): cause

A

inherited by 5-10% in people but the rest is unknown

144
Q

amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS): treatment

A

oral medication such as riluzole cannot reverse damage but can mitigate symptoms

145
Q

cerebral palsy (CP)

A

number of disorders affecting voluntary motor control, motor skills, posture/balance, memory, speech, learning; but is not progressive

146
Q

cerebral palsy (CP): possible causes (3)

A

unusually stressful birth, maternal exposure to drugs, genetic defect

147
Q

cerebral palsy (CP): treatment

A

muscle relaxants and pain relievers, various therapies like physical/speech

Anatomy and Physiology II (19 decks)

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