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BIOL 107 > Lab Exam 1 > Flashcards

Lab Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

define compound microscope

A

uses multiple lenses

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2
Q

how do you calculate total magnification

A

multiplying objective lens magnification and ocular lens magnification

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3
Q

define eyepiece reticle

A

scale projected over the image to estimate the size

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4
Q

define resolution

A

shortest resolvable distance between two objects under the microscope

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5
Q

which lens is responsible for most of the magnification and resolution of the microscope

A

objective lenses

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6
Q

what parts of the microscope are responsible for producing and shaping the light

A
  • light source
  • field diaphragm
  • aperture
  • condenser
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7
Q

define science

A
  • from latin word meaning knowledge
  • covers general truths or the operation of general laws, especially when acquired and tested by the scientific method
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8
Q

what is the first step in the scientific process

A

observation

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9
Q

define hypothesis

A

suggested explanation for an event which one can test

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10
Q

what must a valid hypothesis be

A
  • testable
  • falsifiable
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11
Q

can a hypothesis be proven

A

no

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12
Q

define variable

A

any part of an experiment that can vary or change during the experiment

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13
Q

define independent variable

A

variable being manipulated or changed

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14
Q

define dependent variable

A

variable being measured

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15
Q

define control variable

A

variables held constant to not influence outcome

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16
Q

define control group

A
  • contains every feature of the experimental group except it is not given the manipulation
  • ensures results are due to the manipulation
  • baseline to compare results
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17
Q

steps of the scientific method

A
  • observation
  • question
  • hypothesis
  • prediction
  • experiment
  • analyze results
  • support or reject hypothesis
  • report results
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18
Q

how do termites communicate

A

pheromones

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19
Q

characteristics of a compound light miscroscope

A
  • uses two sets of lenses
  • views thin sections
  • illumination from below
  • greater magnification than dissecting microscope
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20
Q

characteristics of a dissecting microscope/stereoscope

A
  • views objects in 3D
  • opaque objects viewed with reflected light
  • less magnification than compound microscope
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21
Q

characteristics of an electron microscope

A
  • beam of electrons used
  • greater magnification and resolution than light microscopes
  • magnification up to 100,000X
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22
Q

what is the difference between transmission electron microscopes and scanning electron microscopes

A
  • transmission: view thin sections such as cellular organelles
  • scanning: view 3D surface of objects
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23
Q

what is the most common magnification for the ocular lens

A

10X

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24
Q

what are the most common magnifications for the objectives lenses

A

4X, 10X, 40X, 100X

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25
Q

what happens to the field of view as you increase magnification

A

it decreases

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26
Q

what happens to the depth of field as you increase magnification

A

it decreases

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27
Q

what are differences between light microscopes, dissecting microscopes, and electron microscopes

A
  • light: use light to produce image, views thin sections, intermediate magnification
  • dissecting: use light to produce image, views objects in 3D, lowest magnification
  • electron: use beam of electrons to produce image, can view thin sections or 3D surfaces, highest magnification
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28
Q

define biomolecules

A
  • large molecules
  • necessary for life
  • built from smaller organic molecules
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29
Q

what are the four major biomolecule classes

A
  • carbohydrates
  • lipids
  • proteins
  • nucleic acids
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30
Q

what is the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen in carbohydrates

A

1:2:1

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31
Q

what are the 3 subtypes of carbohydrates

A
  • monosaccharides
  • disaccharides
  • polysaccharides
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32
Q

what is the most common monosaccharide

A

glucose

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33
Q

how may carbons are in monosachharides

A

3 to 7

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34
Q

how are disaccharides created from monosaccharides

A

dehydration synthesis

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35
Q

what are some common disaccharides

A
  • lactose: glucose and galactose
  • maltose: glucose and glucose
  • sucrose: glucose and fructose
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36
Q

examples of polysaccharides

A
  • starch
  • glycogen
  • chitin
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37
Q

what are the main functions of carbohydrates

A
  • energy
  • energy storage
  • structure
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38
Q

are lipids polar or nonpolar

A
  • nonpolar
  • hydrophobic
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39
Q

what is the structure of triglycerides

A
  • glycerol
  • 3 fatty acids
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40
Q

what are the main functions of lipids

A
  • energy storage
  • insulation
  • metabolize vitamins
  • growth and development
  • protection
  • hormones
  • cholesterol
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41
Q

what is the most common type of lipid

A

fats/triglycerides

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42
Q

which type of fat is bad and why

A
  • saturated fats
  • have only single bonds
  • saturated with H
  • can pack tightly
  • solid at room temperature
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43
Q

which macromolecule has the most diverse range of functions

A

proteins

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44
Q

functions of proteins

A
  • enzymes
  • transporting molecules
  • structure
  • hormones
  • immune response
  • cell adhesion
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45
Q

what are proteins made from

A

amino acids

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46
Q

define enzymes

A
  • catalyst in biochemical reactions
  • complex protein
  • each is specific for a substrate
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47
Q

define catabolic enzymes

A

break down substrates

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48
Q

define anabolic enzymes

A

build more complex molecules from substrates

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49
Q

define hormones

A
  • chemical-signaling molecules
  • usually small proteins or steroids
  • regulate growth, development, metabolism, reproduction
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50
Q

what is the most important macromolecule for the continuity of life

A

nucleic acids

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51
Q

functions of nucleic acids

A
  • carry cells genetic blueprint and instructions for functioning
  • heredity
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52
Q

what are the two main types of nucleic acids

A
  • DNA
  • RNA
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53
Q

define dehydration synthesis

A
  • how biomolecules are built
  • bonds formed through the removal of water
  • remove OH from one group and H from another
54
Q

what bonds are formed between monosaccharides after dehydration synthesis

A

glycosidic bonds

55
Q

what bonds are formed between glycerol and fatty acids after dehydration synthesis

A

ester linkages

56
Q

what bonds are formed between amino acids after dehydration synthesis

A

peptide bonds

57
Q

why are the bonds between monomers of biomolecules important

A

test for presence of bonds to see if a biomolecule is present in a solution

58
Q

benedicts reagent: what does it test for, what is the positive color, what is the negative color

A
  • tests for monosaccharides
  • positive: low amount is green, high amount is orange/red
  • negative: blue
59
Q

lugol’s solution: what does it test for, what is the positive color, what is the negative color

A
  • tests for polysaccharides/starch
  • positive: dark blue/black
  • negative: orange/brown
60
Q

biruret’s test: what does it test for, what is the positive color, what is the negative color

A
  • tests for proteins
  • positive: violet
  • negative: pale blue
61
Q

sudan IV test: what does it test for, what is the positive color, what is the negative color

A
  • tests for lipids
  • positive: red
  • negative: clear, dye sinks to bottom
62
Q

which test for biomolecules must be heated

A
  • benedicts reagent
  • tests for monosaccharides
63
Q

what is the smallest unit of a living thing

A

cell

64
Q

what is the level of organization from cell to organism

A
  • cell
  • tissue
  • organ
  • organ system
  • organism
65
Q

what are 3 ways we can classify cells

A
  • number: unicellular or multicellular
  • photosynthesis ability: plant or animal
  • presence of membrane-bound organelles: prokaryote or eukaryote
66
Q

what four things do all cells share (prokaryotic and eukaryotic)

A
  • plasma membrane
  • cytoplasm
  • DNA
  • ribosomes
67
Q

unique features of prokaryotes

A
  • mostly unicellular
  • lack nucleus or any other membrane bound organelles
  • most have a peptidoglycan cell wall
  • many have a polysaccharide capsule
  • some have flagella or pili
68
Q

what is the cell theory

A
  • cells are the smallest unit of life
  • all living things are made of one or more cells
  • all cells come from pre-existing cells
69
Q

function of the plasma membrane

A
  • protects cell
  • selectively permeable: allows certain things to enter or exit cell
70
Q

function of the cytoplasm

A
  • surrounds cells internal structures
  • where metabolic reactions take place
71
Q

function of nucleus

A
  • holds genetic material (DNA)
  • controls cell activities
  • nucleolus: produces ribosomes
72
Q

function of ribosomes

A
  • synthesize proteins
73
Q

function of cytoskeleton

A
  • fibers that give support to cell and organelles
  • aids in movement
74
Q

functions of mitochondria

A
  • produce energy
  • site of cellular respiration
75
Q

functions of vesicles/vacuoles

A
  • storage
  • transport
76
Q

functions of lysosomes

A
  • only in animal cells
  • digestion and removal of cell waste
77
Q

functions of endoplasmic reticulum

A
  • RER: modifies proteins, synthesizes phospholipids
  • SER: synthesizes carbs and lipids, detoxification
78
Q

functions of golgi apparatus

A
  • receives items from endoplasmic reticulum through vesicles
  • sorts materials to determine where to send them
79
Q

functions of cell wall

A
  • protection
  • maintains cell shape
80
Q

functions of chloroplast

A
  • only in plant cells
  • make glucose through photosynthesis
81
Q

functions of cilia and flagella

A

cell movement

82
Q

unique features of eukaryotes

A
  • have membrane bound organelles
  • have nucleus
  • have several rod shaped chromosomes
83
Q

define plasma membrane

A
  • phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins
  • controls passage of substances in and out of the cell
84
Q

define diffusion

A
  • passive transport
  • substance moves from high to low concentration
85
Q

define osmosis

A
  • movement of water from area of low solute to high solute concentration
86
Q

define hypertonic solution

A
  • higher solute concentration outside of the cell
  • water moves out of cell
  • cell shrinks
87
Q

define hypotonic solution

A
  • lower solute concentration inside the cell
  • water moves into the cell
  • cell bursts
88
Q

what is included in cytoplasm

A
  • cytosol
  • cytoskeleton
  • various chemicals
89
Q

define cytoplasmic streaming

A

movement of cytoplasm within the cell to transport nutrients, proteins, and organelles throughout the cell

90
Q

which lipid is found within the plasma membrane and affects membrane fluidity

A

cholesterol

91
Q

what organelles are specific to animal cells

A
  • centrioles/centrosomes
  • lysosomes
92
Q

what is the purpose of cell division

A
  • growth
  • maintenance and repair of cells
  • reproduction for single celled organisms
93
Q

what are the two major phases of the cell cycle (mitosis)

A
  • interphase
  • mitotic phase
94
Q

what happens during interphase

A
  • G1: cell growth, protein synthesis, energy reserves
  • S: DNA replicated and attached at centromere, centrosomes duplicate and give rise to mitotic spindle
  • G2: cell growth, protein synthesis, replenish energy reserves, organelles duplicated, cytoskeleton dismantled
95
Q

what happens during the mitotic phase

A
  • duplicated chromosomes are aligned, separated, and moved to opposite sides of the cell
  • cell divided into two identical daughter cells
96
Q

what are the two parts of the mitotic phase

A
  • mitosis
  • cytokinesis
97
Q

what happens during mitosis

A
  • 5 stages
  • nuclear division
98
Q

what happens during cytokinesis

A

physical separation of cytoplasmic components into 2 cells

99
Q

what happens during prophase

A
  • nuclear envelope breaks
  • centrosomes move to opposite ends of the cell
  • spindle fibers emerge from centrosomes
  • sister chromatids coil tightly and become visible under microscope
100
Q

what happens during prometaphase

A
  • chromosomes continue to condense
  • kinetochores appear at centromeres
  • microtubules attach to chromosomes at kinetochore
101
Q

what happens during metaphase

A
  • chromosomes align at metaphase plate
  • sister chromatids still attached to each other and spindle fibers
  • chromosomes maximally condensed
102
Q

what happens during anaphase

A
  • sister chromatids (now called chromosomes) pulled apart at centromere towards a centrosome
  • spindle fibers elongate the cell
103
Q

what happens during telophase

A
  • chromosomes at opposite ends begin to decondense
  • mitotic spindles broken down to assemble cytoskeleton
  • nuclear envelope begins to form around chromosomes
104
Q

what happens during cytokinesis in animal cells

A
  • contractile ring composed of actin filaments forms at former metaphase plate
  • actin filaments pull inward forming a fissure known as the cleavage furrow
  • furrow deepens until cell is split
105
Q

what happens during cytokinesis in plant cells

A
  • enzymes, proteins, and glucose move into vesicles during interphase
  • vesicles collect at metaphase plate during telophase
  • vesicles fuse to form a cell plate
  • enzymes use glucose to build new cell wall of cellulose
106
Q

what is the G0 phase

A
  • cells not actively preparing to divide
  • some enter temporarily
  • some never or rarely divide and remain in G0 permanently (mature cardiac muscle and nerve cells)
107
Q

which phase takes up the majority of the time during the cell cycle

A

interphase

108
Q

what type of cells does mitosis produce

A

genetically identical cells

109
Q

what is the purpose of meiosis

A

to produce haploid gametes for sexual reproduction

110
Q

what happens during prophase 1

A
  • chromosomes seen microscopically
  • nuclear envelope breaks down
  • homologous chromosomes move towards each other
  • synapsis: tight pairing of homologous chromosomes
  • crossing over: genes on non-sister chromatids are aligned and segments are exchanged
111
Q

what is the first source of genetic variation produced by mitosis

A

crossing over in prophase 1

112
Q

what happens during meiosis 2

A
  • connected sister chromatids will split to form 4 haploid cells
  • chromosomes are not duplicated
  • resembles mitotic division
113
Q

differences between mitosis and meiosis

A
  • mitosis: one division, results in 2 diploid cells that are genetically identical, does not have synapsis or crossing over
  • meiosis: two divisions, results in 4 haploid cells that are genetically unique, synapsis and crossing over in prophase 1
114
Q

what are the cells that meiosis makes called

A

gametes

115
Q

why is meiosis 1 referred to as a reduction division

A
  • number of sets of chromosomes is reduced from 2 to 1
  • diploid to haploid
116
Q

define diploid

A
  • cells with 2 copies of DNA
  • body cells
117
Q

define haploid

A
  • cell with a single copy of DNA
  • gametes (sperm and ovum)
118
Q

who is sometimes referred to as the father of genetics and why

A
  • gregor mendel
  • observed traits in peas
  • determined individuals have alternate forms of genes called alleles
119
Q

what is the difference between genotype and phenotypes

A
  • genotype: alleles present for each gene; AA
  • phenotype: individual’s appearance (can be influenced by environment); purple flower
120
Q

define the law of segregation

A
  • genes segregate into gametes so that offspring have an equal likelihood of inheriting either factor
  • gametes only carry one allele for a gene
121
Q

define law of independent assortment

A
  • genes do not influence each other during gamete formation
  • every combination of alleles is equally likely to occur
122
Q

are dominant traits always more common

A
  • no
  • dominant alleles may be rarer in a population
123
Q

what is the phenotypic ratio for offspring from two heterozygous individuals in a dihybrid cross

A

9:3:3:1

124
Q

what is the phenotypic ratio for offspring from two heterozygous individuals in a monohybrid cross

A

3:1

125
Q

what antigens are on each blood type

A
  • A: A
  • B: B
  • AB: A and B
  • O: none
126
Q

define codominance

A
  • neither allele is recessive
  • both phenotypes are expressed
  • red cow mates with white cow and produce red and white spotted cow
127
Q

define incomplete dominance

A
  • two alleles produce intermediate phenotype
  • red flower mates with white flower and produce pink flower
128
Q

what happens when chromatids don’t separate properly during meiosis 2

A
  • genetic disease
  • non disjunction
  • ex: down syndrome
129
Q

example of how the envrionment affect phenotypes

A
  • plant has alleles that favor large growth rate
  • with good soil and water the plant with grow large
  • with poor soil and water the plant will be small
130
Q

is most of out DNA the same or different

A

the same

BIOL 107 (18 decks)

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