Exam 4: Learning Objectives Flashcards
describe sources of evidence supporting evolution
- fossils
- determine age through carbon dating
- evidence that organisms form the past differ from organisms today
define homologous and vestigial structures
- homologous: similar structures resulting from common ancestor; appendages of humans and dogs
- vestigial: structures leftover from a past ancestor that have no apparent function; legs in snakes and wings in flightless birds
define species
- group of actually or potentially interbreeding individuals
- must produce fertile offspring
describe how species are identified as different
- distinguished from each other by possibility of mating and producing viable offspring
explain allopatric and sympatric speciation
- allopatric: geographic separation, dispersal when few members move or variance when natural situation physically divides organisms
- sympatric: occurs in one location, from autopolyploidy or alloploidy
describe adaptive radiation
- speciation with geographic separation (allopatric)
- multiple speciation events originating from a single species
- population disperses through an area and each finds a distinct niche or habitat
identify common misconceptions and criticisms of evolution
- evolution is just a theory
- individuals evolve
- evolution explains the origin of life
- organisms evolve on purpose
- evolution is controversial among scientists
- other theories should be taught
describe the phylogenic tree of life
- diagram showing evolution and relationships between different organisms
- map of evolutionary history
- hypothesis of evolutionary past
define LUCA
- last universal common ancestor
- cellular organism that has a lipid bilayer and used DNA, RNA, and proteins
- does not still exist
discuss the need for a comprehensive classification system
- allows us to understand diversity and evolution
list the different taxonomic levels of the classification system
- domain
- kingdom
- phylum
- class
- order
- family
- genus
- species
understand the relationship between taxonomy and evolutionary relationships
- lower levels (domain) have organisms that are less similar while higher levels (species) have organisms that are more similar
describe how taxonomy relates to phylogeny
- taxonomy is based on phylogeny
- phylogeny shows evolutionary relationships and taxonomy names organisms based on their evolutionary relationships
interpret a phylogenic tree
- rooted: single ancestor at the base of the tree that all organisms represented descended from
- branch points: where single lineage evolved into distinct new ones
- length of branches doesn’t correlate with time, can only see common ancestors from branch points
compare asexual and sexual reproduction
- asexual: genetically identical offspring, requires 1 parent, includes budding/fragmentation/parthenogenesis
- sexual: genetically unique offspring, requires 2 parents, includes fertilization, done by most animals
describe different types of asexual reproduction
- budding: offspring begins growing as a part of the parent and them separates
- fragmentation: piece of parent separates and offspring develops from that
- parthenogenesis: unfertilized eggs develop into new offspring
explain the processes of sexual reproduction and early embryonic development
- fertilization: sperm and egg combine to create zygote
- cleavage: zygote undergoes multiple rapid mitotic divisions to create blastula
- gastrulation: part of blastula moves inward to create blastospore and embryonic tissue layers
- organogenesis: organ and tissue development by cell division and differentiation
list the features that distinguish the animal kingdom from other kingdoms
- multicellular
- eukaryotic
- heterotrophs
- have specialized cells
- mobile at some point in life cycle
describe the features used for animal classification
- symmetry
- number of tissue layers
- presence/absence of body cavity (coelom)
- other features of embryonic development (placenta, external vs internal development)
define symmetry and identify different types
- asymmetry: no pattern or symmetry
- radial symmetry: multiple planes crossing through the center of the organism
- bilateral symmetry: one plane creating two mirror-image sides
understand the role of germ layers in development
- germ layers develop into future body tissues
compare diploblastic and triploblastic
- diploblastic: two germ layers, radial symmetry
- triploblastic: three germ layers, bilateral symmetry, may develop coelom
differentiate between protostomes and deuterostomes
- protostomes: blastopore becomes the mouth
- deuterostomes: blastopore becomes the anus
compare coelomates, pseudocoelomates, and acoelomates
- coelomates: true coelom, arises entirely within the mesoderm
- pseudocoelomates: coelom derived partly from mesoderm and partly from endoderm
- acoelomates: no coelom
phylum porifera: type of animals, symmetry, cephalization, coelom, protostome/deuterostome (when applicable), habitat, notable features
- type of animals: sponges
- symmetry: asymmetrical
- cephalization: no
- coelom: none (acoelomate)
- protostome/deuterostome: N/A
- habitat: aquatic (mostly saltwater)
- features: adults are sessile, porous body, intracellular digestion, no gut
phylum cnidaria: type of animals, symmetry, cephalization, coelom, protostome/deuterostome (when applicable), habitat, notable features
- type of animals: jellies, sea anemones, hydras
- symmetry: radial (diploblastic)
- cephalization: no
- coelom: none (acoelomate)
- protostome/deuterostome: N/A
- habitat: aquatic (saltwater or freshwater)
- features: 1 gut opening, intracellular and extracellular digestion, polyp and medusa form, cells for stinging prey
phylum platyhelminthes: type of animals, symmetry, cephalization, coelom, protostome/deuterostome (when applicable), habitat, notable features
- type of animals: flatworms
- symmetry: bilateral (triploblastic)
- cephalization: yes
- coelom: none (acoelomate)
- protostome/deuterostome: N/A
- habitat: aquatic (saltwater or freshwater), terrestrial, parasitic
- features: 1 gut opening
phylum nematoda: type of animals, symmetry, cephalization, coelom, protostome/deuterostome (when applicable), habitat, notable features
- type of animals: nematodes (hookworms, pinworms)
- symmetry: bilateral (triploblastic)
- cephalization: yes
- coelom: pseudocoelomates
- protostome/deuterostome: protostome (mouth first)
- habitat: aquatic (saltwater or freshwater), terrestrial
- features: 2 gut openings
phylum molluska: type of animals, symmetry, cephalization, coelom, protostome/deuterostome (when applicable), habitat, notable features
- type of animals: mollusks, snails, clams, octopuses, giant squid
- symmetry: bilateral (triploblastic)
- cephalization: yes
- coelom: coelomates (true coelom)
- protostome/deuterostome: protostomes (mouth first)
- habitat: aquatic (saltwater or freshwater), terrestrial
- features: shell secreted by mantle, radula to scrape food, muscular foot for movement
phylum annelida: type of animals, symmetry, cephalization, coelom, protostome/deuterostome (when applicable), habitat, notable features
- type of animals: earthworms, leeches, tube worms
- symmetry: bilateral (triploblastic)
- cephalization: yes
- coelom: coelomates (true coelom)
- protostome/deuterostome: protostomes (mouth first)
- habitat: aquatic (saltwater or freshwater), terrestrial
- features: segmented internally and externally, setae hair for movement
phylum arthropoda: type of animals, symmetry, cephalization, coelom, protostome/deuterostome (when applicable), habitat, notable features
- type of animals: insects, spiders, crustaceans
- symmetry: bilateral (triploblastic)
- cephalization: yes
- coelom: coelomates (true coelom)
- protostome/deuterostome: protostomes (mouth first)
- habitat: aquatic (saltwater or freshwater), terrestrial
- features: many can fly, jointed appendages, segmented bodies, exoskeleton made form chitin, some go through metamorphosis
phylum echinodermata: type of animals, symmetry, cephalization, coelom, protostome/deuterostome (when applicable), habitat, notable features
- type of animals: sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers
- symmetry: bilateral as larvae and radial as adults (triploblastic)
- cephalization: no
- coelom: coelomates (true coelom)
- protostome/deuterostome: deuterostomes (anus first)
- habitat: aquatic (mostly saltwater)
- features: ability to regenerate, some can reproduce asexually from a lost part
phylum chordata: type of animals, symmetry, cephalization, coelom, protostome/deuterostome (when applicable), habitat, notable features
- type of animals: vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals) and some invertebrates (lancelet)
- symmetry: bilateral (triploblastic)
- cephalization: yes
- coelom: coelomates (true coelom)
- protostome/deuterostome: deuterostomes (anus first)
- habitat: very diverse
- features: notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal gill slits, post-anal tail, endostyle/thyroid gland
define the requirements of phylum chordata
- notochord
- dorsal hollow nerve cord
- pharyngeal gill slits
- post-anal tail
- endostyle/thyroid gland
explain the concept of homeostasis
- process of maintaining equilibrium around a set point
- often are normal fluctuations but the body’s systems try to return to set point
compare thermoregulation in ectotherms and endotherms
- ectotherms: no internal regulation, have behaviors that keep them at a good body temperature
- endotherms: internal regulation, can maintain higher level of activity, have behavioral and physical adaptations to keep them at a good body temperature
describe the role of kidneys in maintaining osmoregulation or organs in the human body
- nephrons in the kidneys filter wastes from the blood
- filtered blood is returned to the circulatory system
- ensures there is not an accumulation of toxic wastes and water in the blood
explain the process of digestion and absorption
- digestion: physical and chemical breakdown of food; mouth to esophagus to stomach to small intestine
- absorption: uptake of nutrients from broken down food; small intestine to large intestine
describe the specialized functions of organs involved in processing food
- mouth: begins digestion, physical (mastication) and chemical (enzymes)
- esophagus: moves bolus to stomach through peristalsis
- stomach: physical and chemical digestion, pepsin breaks down proteins
- liver: produces bile, processes absorbed vitamins and fatty acids
- gallbladder: stores bile
- pancreas: produces enzymes for digestion of proteins and carbohydrates, neutralizes pH of chyme form stomach
- small intestine: digestion completed and absorption begins, where chyme mixes with pancreatic juices and bile, villi increase surface area for absorption, epithelial cells absorb nutrients
- large intestine: absorbs water and processes waste
- rectum: stores feces
explain how organs work together to digest food and absorb nutrients
- mouth begins digestion and then moves to stomach and small intestine
- small intestine finishes digestion and starts absorption
- large intestine finished absorption and processes the waste
describe the essential nutrients required for cellular function that cannot be synthesized by the animal body
- vitamins: organic molecules, coenzymes
- minerals: inorganic molecules, cofactors
- essential fatty acids: make membrane phospholipids, omega-3 and omega-6
- essential amino acids: 9 total essential
explain how excess carbohydrates and energy are stored
- excess glucose are converted to glycogen and is stored in the liver and muscles
- when glycogen reserves are full, glucose is converted to fatty acids and is stored in adipose tissue (fat)
explain the function of the circulatory system
- circulates nutrients, O2, CO2, and waste through the blood
- regulates blood pressure by heart beating
explain the function of the respiratory system
- obtains O2 and removes CO2
- for cellular respiration
describe the passage of air from the outside environment to the lungs
- nasal cavity
- pharynx
- larynx
- trachea
- primary bronchus
- secondary bronchus
- tertiary bronchus
- bronchioles
- respiratory bronchioles
- alveoli ducts
- alveoli sacs
- alveoli
describe the function of each side of the heart and each valve
- right: pump blood to lungs
- left: pump blood to body
- tricuspid valve: prevents backflow from right ventricle to right atria during systole
- bicuspid value: prevents backflow from left ventricle to left atria during systole
- pulmonary valve: prevents backflow into right ventricle during diastole
- aortic valve: prevents backflow into left ventricle during diastole
describe the cardiac cycle
- cardiac diastole: all chambers relax and blood moves into the heart
- atrial systole and ventricular diastole: ventricles remain relaxed as atria contract to push blood into ventricles
- atrial diastole and ventricular systole: ventricles contract and push blood out of the heart as atria relax
explain how blood flows through the body
- body
- superior or inferior vena cava
- right atrium
- tricuspid valve
- right ventricle
- pulmonary valve
- pulmonary artery
- lungs
- pulmonary vein
- left atrium
- bicuspid valve
- left ventricle
- aortic valve
- aorta
- body
describe hormones
- chemicals that regulate or control the activity of certain cells or organs
- stimulate a response in cells that have receptors to bind to them
- coordinates many different systems and organs
explain the role of hormones in maintaining homeostasis
- hormones are sent to different cells to communicate with them about what they need to do to maintain homeostasis
- should the cells increase or decrease production of a molecule
explain how hormones work
- released by cells in one part of the body
- circulate through the body by body fluids
- bind to receptors on target cells
describe the role of different glands in the endocrine system
- pituitary gland: does a LOT
- pineal gland: secretes melatonin and helps with circadian rhythm
- thyroid gland: stimulates metabolism, reduces blood calcium levels
- parathyroid gland: increases blood calcium levels
- adrenal glands: stimulates fight or flight response
- pancreas: contains exocrine and endocrine glands
- thymus: contributes to immune system development
explain how hormone production is regulated (example thyroid hormones)
- concentration or hormones in blood maintained within a narrow range usually through negative feedback
- ex: anterior pituitary signals thyroid to release hormones, increase in thyroid hormones gives feedback to hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to inhibit further signaling to the thyroid
explain how glands work together to maintain homeostasis
- hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together to control hormones production
