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BIOL 107 > Chapter 4: How Cells Obtain Energy > Flashcards

Chapter 4: How Cells Obtain Energy Flashcards

1
Q

define energy

A
  • the capacity to cause change
  • ability to do work
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2
Q

define bioenergetics

A

the concept of energy flow through living systems

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3
Q

define metabolism

A
  • all chemical reactions that take place in cells
  • includes reactions using energy and reactions releasing energy
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4
Q

define anabolic pathways

A
  • require energy
  • synthesize complex molecules
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5
Q

define catabolic pathways

A
  • release energy
  • break down complex molecules
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6
Q

define potential energy

A
  • stored energy
  • energy matter has because of its structure
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7
Q

define kinetic energy

A
  • energy of objects in motion
  • movement of objects
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8
Q

define chemical energy

A
  • energy in the bonds that hold atoms of molecules together
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9
Q

define free energy

A
  • G
  • usable energy
  • energy from a chemical reaction that is available to do work AFTER we account for entropy
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10
Q

define entropy

A
  • energy lost to an unusable form such as heat
  • measure of disorder or randomness of the universe
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11
Q

define exergonic

A
  • energy is released; bonds are broken
  • tied to catabolic reactions
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12
Q

define endergonic

A
  • energy is required; bonds are made
  • tied to anabolic reactions
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13
Q

define system

A

matter under study

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14
Q

define surroundings

A

everything outside of the system

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15
Q

define open system/closed system

A
  • open: matter and energy can be exchanged with surroundings
  • closed: energy can be exchanged but not matter
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16
Q

define activation energy

A

initial energy required for a reaction to start

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17
Q

define enzyme

A

molecules (typically proteins) that catalyze (speed up) biochemical reactions

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18
Q

define active site

A
  • location on an enzyme where the substrates bind
  • highly specific so only certain substrates can attach
  • influenced by environment (temp, pH, salt concentration)
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19
Q

define allosteric site

A
  • location on enzyme where substrate doesn’t bind
  • any site that is not active site
  • where cofactors or coenzymes bind
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20
Q

define coenzymes

A
  • organic
  • molecules that promote or inhibit enzyme function
  • can bind to active site or other site
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21
Q

define cofactors

A
  • inorganic
  • molecules that promote or inhibit enzyme function
  • can bind to active site or other site
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22
Q

define competitive inhibition

A
  • molecules similar to substrate bind to the active site
  • block substrate from binding
  • “competes” with substrate for active site
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23
Q

define non-competitive inhibition

A
  • aka allosteric inhibition
  • molecule binds to allosteric site
  • changes shape of enzyme so substrate can’t attach
  • inhibits substrate binding
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24
Q

define feedback inhibition

A
  • enzymes activity inhibited by enzyme’s end product
  • end product attached to enzyme and inhibits more reactions from occurring
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25
Q

what requires energy

A
  • everything
  • every task performed by living organisms needs energy
  • every living cell constantly uses energy
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26
Q

where does energy come from

A

sun

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27
Q

what energy source sustains most of earth’s life forms

A

sun

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28
Q

chemical formula for photosynthesis

A

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy –> C6H12O6 + 6O2

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29
Q

chemical formula for cellular respiration

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 –> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

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30
Q

how do cells use energy

A

building and breaking molecules

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31
Q

what does an organisms metabolism do

A

transforms matter and energy

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32
Q

what is an organisms metabolism subject to

A

the laws of physics

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33
Q

define metabolic pathways

A
  • many biochemical reactions that all require energy transformations
  • includes many steps in each pathway
  • very complex
  • every step is related
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34
Q

what is each step in a metabolic pathway

A
  • separate chemical reaction
  • catalyzed by a specific enzyme
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35
Q

what are the two types of metabolic pathways

A
  • anabolic
  • catabolic
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36
Q

examples of anabolic pathways

A
  • photosynthesis
  • gluconeogenesis
  • protein synthesis
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37
Q

example of catabolic pathways

A
  • glycolysis
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38
Q

what is fundamental to all metabolic processes

A

energy

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39
Q

what are the two main types of energy

A
  • potential energy
  • kinetic energy
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40
Q

what type of energy is chemical energy

A

potential energy

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41
Q

examples of potential energy

A
  • membrane potential (sodium potassium pump)
  • chemical energy stored in molecular structures (bonds of glucose)
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42
Q

examples of kinetic energy

A
  • thermal energy: random movement of atoms or molecules
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43
Q

can energy be converted from one form to another

A
  • yes
  • potential and kinetic converted both ways
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44
Q

what type of energy do living cells depend on

A
  • chemical energy
  • structural energy stored in bonds
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45
Q

what happens when chemical reactions break energy-storing bonds

A
  • release of energy
  • catabolic pathway
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46
Q

what is ^G (triangle G; change in G) and what does it determine

A
  • free energy change of a reaction
  • determines whether a reaction happens spontaneously or non-spontaneously
  • total energy - energy lost
  • energy of products - energy of reactants
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47
Q

what are the two major types of reaction

A
  • exergonic
  • endergonic
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48
Q

are exergonic reactions spontaneous or non-spontaneous and why

A
  • spontaneous
  • no additional energy is required
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49
Q

are endergonic reactions spontaneous or non-spontaneous and why

A
  • non-spontaneous
  • additional energy is required
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50
Q

what happens to free energy during exergonic reactions

A
  • free energy decreases
  • products have less free energy than the reactants
  • ^G is negative (low energy products - high energy reactants)
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51
Q

what happens to free energy during endergonic reactions

A
  • free energy increases
  • products have more free energy than the reactants
  • ^G is positive (high energy products - low energy reactants)
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52
Q

which type of reaction increases the stability of the system

A

exergonic

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53
Q

in which type of reaction is the energy of the reactants greater than the energy of the products

A
  • exergonic
  • energy exits as bonds are broken
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54
Q

in which type of reaction is the energy of the reactants less than the energy of the products

A
  • endergonic
  • energy enters as bonds are created
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55
Q

define isolated system

A

cannot exchange energy or matter with surroundings

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56
Q

define thermodynamics

A
  • study of energy and energy transformations between a system and its surroundings
  • governed by the laws of thermodynamics
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57
Q

what is the 1st law of thermodynamics

A
  • total amount of energy in the universe does not change
  • energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed
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58
Q

what is the 2nd law of thermodynamics

A
  • all energy transfers or transformations are never completely efficient; some energy is always lost
  • conversion of some energy to an unusable form, usually heat
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59
Q

what two things does every energy transfer do

A
  • increases entropy of the universe
  • reduces amount of usable energy available to do work
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60
Q

what is a system with high entropy

A
  • disorganized
  • low available energy
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61
Q

what is a system with low entropy

A
  • organized
  • high available energy
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62
Q

what happens when entropy in a system is decreased

A

entropy in the surroundings is increased

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63
Q

how do living organisms increase entropy in the universe

A
  • high ordered/organized
  • require constant energy input to maintain order within the system
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64
Q

review of catabolic process

A
  • breaks down molecules
  • exergonic: releases energy
  • ^G is negative
  • spontaneous
  • more stable than anabolic
  • ex: glycolysis
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65
Q

review of anabolic process

A
  • builds up molecules
  • endergonic: requires energy
  • ^G is positive
  • non-spontaneous
  • less stable than catabolic
  • ex: photosynthesis
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66
Q

what reactions require energy to begin

A
  • every single reaction
  • exergonic and endergonic
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67
Q

what helps reactants reach their transition state

A

activation energy

68
Q

why is the transition state important

A
  • causes reactions to becomes unstable
  • allows bonds to be broken or made
69
Q

what is the main source of activation energy in the cell

A

heat energy from surroundings of the system

70
Q

what do enzymes do

A
  • lower activation energy; makes it easier for reaction to take place
  • bind to reactant molecules and hold them in a way that makes it easier to break or form bonds
71
Q

do enzymes change the overall energy released during a reaction

A
  • no
  • energy released in the same with or without the enzyme
72
Q

do enzymes change whether a reaction is exergonic or endergonic

A

no

73
Q

do enzymes get used up

A
  • no
  • remain unchanged
  • can catalyze multiple of the same reactions
74
Q

what differentiates enzymes from reactants

A

enzymes don’t get used up like reactants

75
Q

define substrate

A
  • chemical reactants to which an enzyme binds
  • single substrate broken down or two substrates joined
76
Q

how do enzymes lower activation energy

A
  • bring multiple substrates together in optimal orientation for reaction
  • optimal environment within active site for reaction to occur
  • compromise bond structures
77
Q

what is enzyme activity controlled by

A
  • environmental factors (temp, pH, salt concentration)
  • coenzymes and cofactors
78
Q

what is the difference between coenzymes and cofactors

A
  • coenzymes are organic molecules
  • cofactors are inorganic molecules
79
Q

can substrates react without enzymes

A
  • yes
  • less efficiently
80
Q

define allosteric activation

A
  • molecule binds to allosteric site
  • changes shape of enzyme (activates) so substrate can attach
81
Q

what are the benefits of feedback inhibition

A
  • stops cell from continuing reaction when enough of the end product has been made (more end product = more binding to enzymes = less enzymes catalyzing reactions)
  • uses less resources when not needed
  • conserves space in cell
82
Q

define adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

A
  • composed of adenosine, one ribose sugar, and 3 phosphate groups
  • primary energy supplying molecule of the cell
83
Q

define cellular respiration

A

process within a cell where energy is made

84
Q

define glycolysis

A
  • breakdown of glucose
  • creates pyruvate, energy, and NADH
85
Q

define NAD+/NADH

A
  • coenzymes that act as electron carriers to the electron transport chain
  • NAD+: oxidized form, fewest electrons
  • NADH: reduced form, most electrons
86
Q

define glucose

A
  • 6 C simple sugar
  • used for energy
87
Q

define pyruvate

A
  • 3 C sugar
  • product of glycolysis (2 for each glucose molecule)
  • go to the citric acid cycle
88
Q

where is energy stored in ATP

A

bonds between phosphate groups

89
Q

chemical formula for glycolysis

A
  • glucose + oxygen –> carbon dioxide + water + energy
  • C6H12O6 +6O2 –> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
90
Q

what happens when an H2O molecule is added to ATP

A
  • hydrolysis
  • breaks bond; becomes ADP
  • releases energy
  • catabolic/exergonic
91
Q

what happens when an H2O molecule is removed from ADP

A
  • creates bond; becomes ATP
  • requires energy
  • anabolic/endergonic
92
Q

what are the two phases of glycolysis

A
  • 1st: energy investment phase
  • 2nd: energy payoff phase
93
Q

explain the energy investment phase of glycolysis

A
  • start with glucose (6 C sugar)
  • glucose phosphorylated twice using ATP
  • fructose-1 6-biphosphate is made (6 C and 2 P)
  • converted into two glyceraldehyde-3-P (3 C and 1 P)
94
Q

what is the purpose of phosphorylating glucose in the energy investment phase of glycolysis

A

provides activation energy

95
Q

what is the cost of the energy investment phase of glycolysis

A

2 ATP

96
Q

explain the energy payoff phase of glycolysis

A
  • glyceraldehyde-3-P gets electron removed with NAD+ which creates NADH
  • 2 ATP are made from 2 ADP
  • ends with pyruvate (3 C sugar)
97
Q

how many times does the energy payoff phase of glycolysis happen for each glucose molecule

A

twice

98
Q

how many ATP are created from the energy payoff phase of glycolysis

A

4 ATP

99
Q

what is the yield/products of glycolysis

A
  • 4 ATP (net yield 2)
  • 2 pyruvate
  • 2 NADH
100
Q

what is the net yield of ATP in glycolysis and why

A
  • net yield is 2 ATP
  • 2 ATP are used in the energy investment phase
  • 4 ATP are made in the energy payoff phase
  • 4-2=2 ATP net yield
101
Q

what is a waste product of glycolysis

A

H2O

102
Q

what coenzymes are similar to NAD+ and NADH

A
  • FAD+
  • FADH2
103
Q

what does NAD stand for

A

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

104
Q

where does glycolysis take place in the cell

A

cytosol

105
Q

define citric acid cycle/krebs cycle

A
  • occurs after glycolysis
  • gathers electrons for the electron transport chain
106
Q

define oxidation of pyruvate

A
  • pyruvate oxidized to acetyl CoA
  • pyruvate attaches to CoA and NAD+ takes an electron
  • prepares pyruvate for citric acid cycle
107
Q

define acetyl CoA

A
  • 2 C attached to coenzyme A (CoA)
  • made from pyruvate during oxidation of pyruvate
108
Q

define oxaloacetate

A
  • anchor of the citric acid cycle
  • 4 C
  • combines with acetyl CoA to create citrate at the beginning of the cycle
109
Q

define citrate

A
  • 6 C
  • created from acetyl CoA and oxaloacetate at the beginning of the citric acid cycle
110
Q

define FAD/FADH2

A
  • similar to NAD+/NADH
  • FAD: few electrons, can accept
  • FADH2: most electrons, carries electrons
111
Q

define oxidative phosphorylation

A
  • final step of cellular respiration
  • when oxygen is used
  • composed of electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
112
Q

define electron transport chain

A
  • electrons passed from one molecule to another
  • releases energy that is used to form electrochemical gradient; H+ gradient
113
Q

define chemiosmosis

A
  • energy stored in electrochemical gradient is used to generate ATP
  • process where ATP is actually made
114
Q

define ATP synthase

A
  • protein/enzyme in inner mitochondrial membrane
  • used in chemiosmosis to make ATP
  • rotates
115
Q

what happens to the pyruvate produced from glycolysis

A
  • enters the citric acid cycle
  • converted to acetyl CoA by being oxidized and attached to coenzyme A (CoA)
116
Q

what are the products of oxidation of pyruvate

A
  • acetyl CoA
  • carbon dioxide (waste product)
  • NADH
117
Q

where does oxidation of pyruvate take palce

A
  • mitochondria in eukaryotes
  • cytosol in prokaryotes
118
Q

how many times does the citric acid cycle happen for 1 glucose molecule

A
  • twice
  • 2 pyruvate made from glycolysis and each undergoes citric acid cycle
119
Q

where does the citric acid cycle take place

A
  • matrix of mitochondria in eukaryotes
  • cytosol in prokaryotes
120
Q

does the citric acid cycle produce a lot of ATP directly

A
  • no
  • purpose is to gather electrons for electron transport chain where ATP is mostly made
121
Q

does the citric acid cycle require oxygen

A
  • requires oxygen
  • doesn’t directly consume it
122
Q

what happens to all of the organic carbon from acetyl CoA in the citric acid cycle

A
  • given off as CO2
123
Q

what is the input of the citric acid cycle (for 2 turns, 1 glucose molecule)

A
  • 2 acetyl CoA
  • 2 oxaloacetate
  • 6 NAD+
  • 2 FAD
124
Q

what is the output/product of the citric acid cycle (for 2 turns, 1 glucose molecule)

A
  • 4 CO2
  • 6 NADH
  • 2 FADH2
  • 2 ATP/GTP
  • H2O
125
Q

when do cells use oxygen in cellular respiration

A

oxidative phosphorylation

126
Q

why is oxygen important in the electron transport chain

A
  • accepts electrons from NADH
  • replenishes NAD+ for cellular respiration to continue
127
Q

where does the electron transport chain take place

A
  • embedded proteins in the inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotes
  • plasma membrane in prokaryotes
128
Q

how many proteins are in the inner mitochondrial membrane for the electron transport chain

A

4

129
Q

explain the steps of the electron transport chain

A
  • NADH from the citric acid cycle drops of electron at first embedded protein (C1)
  • H+ moves across C1 into the intermembrane space of mitochondria
  • electron moves through embedded protein (C1 to C2 to C3 to C4)
  • electron moves back to mitochondrial matrix and is accepted by O2
  • H+ attaches and H2O is formed
130
Q

which embedded proteins does H+ move from the matrix to the intermembrane space during the electron transport chain

A

C1, C3, C4

131
Q

explain the steps of chemiosmosis

A
  • H+ moves from intermembrane space through ATP synthase and into the mitochondrial matrix
  • energy from H+ combines ADP and P to make ATP
132
Q

why is the electron transport chain important

A
  • regenerates electron carriers: NADH and FADH2 turn into NAD+ and FAD which can go back to glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
  • creates proton gradient: stored form of energy used to make ATP
133
Q

how much ATP is generated by cellular respiration for 1 glucose molecule and what stages does it come from

A
  • 36-38 total
  • 2 from glycolysis
  • 2 from citric acid cycle
  • 32-34 (majority) from oxidative phosphorylation (ETC and chemiosmosis)
134
Q

glycolysis: purpose, location, input, products, waste

A
  • purpose: reduce glucose to pyruvate, produce NADH for ETC
  • location: cytosol
  • input: glucose
  • products: 2 ATP, 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH
  • waste: H2O
135
Q

pyruvate oxidation: purpose, location, input, products, waste

A
  • purpose: produce acetyl CoA for CAC, produce NADH for ETC
  • location: mitochondrial matrix
  • input: pyruvate
  • products: 1 NADH, 1 H+, Acetyl CoA
  • waste: CO2
136
Q

citric acid cycle: purpose, location, input, products, waste

A
  • purpose: NADH and FADH2 for ETC
  • location: mitochondrial matrix
  • input: acetyl CoA
  • products: 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP
  • waste: 2 CO2
137
Q

oxidative phosphorylation: purpose, location, input, products, waste

A
  • purpose: ATP production
  • location: mitochondrial inner membrane
  • input: NADH and FADH2
  • products: 36-38 ATP, heat
  • waste: H2O, heat
138
Q

define aerobic cellular respiration

A
  • electrons transported by NADH or FADH2 to ETC
  • oxygen accepts electrons
  • replenishes NAD+ and FAD for use in glycolysis
139
Q

define anaerobic cellular respiration

A
  • use of inorganic molecules as final electron receptor
  • sulfate, nitrate, sulfur, etc
140
Q

define fermentation

A
  • use of organic molecules as final electron receptor
  • form of anaerobic cellular respiration
  • consists of glycolysis and NAD+ regeneration pathway
  • catabolic pathway
141
Q

define lactic acid fermentation

A
  • pyruvate converted to lactate to regenerate NAD+
  • directly regenerates NAD+
  • no CO2 released
142
Q

define alcohol fermentation

A
  • pyruvate converted to ethanol (EtOH)
  • releases CO2
  • 2 steps: pyruvate to acetaldehyde to ethanol
143
Q

why is oxygen a good final electron acceptor

A

highly electronegative

144
Q

what kinds of organisms use anaerobic cellular respiration

A

prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) that live in low-oxygen environments

145
Q

why is glycolysis known as the universal pathway

A

all cells undergo glycolysis whether they use aerobic or anaerobic cellular respiration

146
Q

what point of cellular respiration is the fork in the road

A
  • pyruvate
  • right after glycolysis
147
Q

is fermentation complete or partial breakdown of glucose

A

partial

148
Q

where does fermentation take place

A

cytoplasm

149
Q

does fermentation produce a large or small amount of ATP

A

small amount

150
Q

what organisms undergo lactic acid fermentation

A
  • animals
  • bacteria
  • fungi
  • protists
151
Q

what type of animal cells perform lactic acid fermentation

A
  • muscle cells: when O2 is limited (exercising)
  • mammalian RBCs: have no mitochondria for aerobic respiration
152
Q

what is the final electron acceptor in lactic acid fermentation

A

pyruvate

153
Q

does alcohol fermentation occur in human cells

A

no

154
Q

where does alcohol fermentation mainly occur

A

yeast

155
Q

what is the final electron acceptor in alcohol fermentation

A

acetaldehyde

156
Q

what are the main differences between lactic acid and alcohol fermentation

A
  • lactic acid: in human cells, 1 step, pyruvate in final electron acceptor, no CO2 released
  • alcohol: not in human cells, 2 steps, acetaldehyde is final electron receptor, CO2 released
157
Q

does increased temperature lower activation energy required for a reaction

A
  • no
  • heat is the source of activation energy
158
Q

in what type of reaction is free energy increased, stability decreased, and has a positive ^G

A
  • endergonic
  • non-spontaneous
159
Q

in what type of reaction is free energy decreased, stability increased, and has a negative ^G

A
  • exergonic
  • spontaneous
160
Q

how will a healthy individual’s ATP production change during an eight-hour fast

A
  • no significant change
  • respiration continues to function
  • body stores glycogen and fats for energy
161
Q

which state of matter has the lowest entropy

A
  • solid
  • less movement of molecules
162
Q

ATP drives endergonic reactions by the process of _________, which is the _________________

A

phosphorylation, transferring a phosphate to other molecules

163
Q

what organisms undergo aerobic cellular respiration

A
  • animals
  • plants
  • fungi
  • bacteria
164
Q

during cellular respiration, what happens to the 6 carbons in glucose

A

all are completely oxidized to CO2

165
Q

which is oxidized and which is reduced: NAD+, NADH

A
  • NAD+ is oxidized
  • NADH is reduced

BIOL 107 (18 decks)

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