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BIOL 107 > Chapter 16: The Body's Systems > Flashcards

Chapter 16: The Body's Systems Flashcards

1
Q

define homeostasis

A
  • process of maintaining equilibrium around a set point
  • there are often normal fluctuations but the body’s systems try to get back to the set point
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2
Q

define set point

A
  • specific value of some aspect of the body or its cells
  • body temperature, glucose, etc
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3
Q

describe the process of leaving and returning to homeostasis

A
  • stimulus occurs in internal or external environment
  • receptor (part of feedback mechanism) detects change
  • receptor sends information to a control center
  • control center relays signal to organ that is able to cause appropriate change
  • system adjusts activities so the value moves back to the set point
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4
Q

define thermoregulation

A
  • regulating heat
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5
Q

define ectotherms

A
  • cold-blooded
  • means “external temperature”
  • animals that do not have internal control of their body temperature
  • body temperature is similar to temperature of environment
  • may exhibit behaviors to keep their bodies slightly above or below temperature of the environment
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6
Q

examples of behaviors ectotherms engage in to control their body temperature

A
  • burrowing underground: get cooler
  • resting in the sunlight: get warmer
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7
Q

which animals are ectotherms

A
  • fish
  • amphibians
  • reptiles
  • invertebrates
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8
Q

define endotherms

A
  • warm-blooded
  • means “internal temperature”
  • animals that maintain a constat body temperature in the face of environmental changes
  • can maintain higher level of activity because they can generate internal heat (optimal cellular processing even in cold environments)
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9
Q

which animals are endotherms

A
  • mammals
  • birds
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10
Q

adaptations in ectotherms to conserve or dissipate heat

A
  • changes in behavior
  • ex: desert animals seeking cooler areas during the day and warmer areas during the night
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11
Q

adaptations in endotherms to conserve or dissipate heat

A
  • behavioral and physical adaptations
  • insulation through thick fur/feathers or fat
  • shivering to increase body heat
  • sweating to cool body
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12
Q

what body systems are involved in thermoregulation

A
  • circulatory system
  • nervous system
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13
Q

what are the 2 ways that the circulatory system affects thermoregulation

A
  • vasodilation
  • vasoconstriction
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14
Q

describe how vasodilation affects body heat

A
  • used when temperature rises to cool the body
  • opening of arteries to the skin by relaxation of smooth muscles
  • brings more blood and heat to the body surface where it is lost to the environment
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15
Q

describe how vasoconstriction affects body heat

A
  • used when temperature falls to heat the body
  • narrowing of blood vessels to the skin by contraction of smooth muscles
  • reduces blood flow to peripheral blood vessels
  • forces blood toward the core and vital organs
  • conserves heat
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16
Q

define negative feedback

A
  • stimulus causes changes to return the system to the set point
  • most of body processes
  • maintains homeostasis
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17
Q

define positive feedback

A
  • driving a reaction forward
  • ex: labor contractions
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18
Q

how does the nervous system affect thermoregulation

A
  • head coordinator of regulating body heat
  • temperature controlled in hypothalamus
  • directs sympathetic nervous system to effect changes to shift body temperature to set point
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19
Q

how does the hypothalamus control thermoregulation

A
  • maintains set point for body temperature
  • causes vasodilation/vasoconstriction and sweating/shivering
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20
Q

what is countercurrent heat exchange

A
  • unique to dolphins, sharks, bony fish, bees, and hummingbirds
  • adaptation to circulatory system that allows animals to warm blood by returning it to the heart
  • veins and arteries have heat transfer that warms blood before it goes to the heart and other organs
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21
Q

define osmoregulation

A
  • process of maintaining salt and water balance across membranes within the body
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22
Q

examples of body fluids that need osmoregulation

A
  • blood plasma
  • fluid within cells
  • interstitial fluid
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23
Q

define interstitial fluid

A
  • fluid that exists in the spaces between cells and tissues of the body
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24
Q

what is fluid within and surrounding cells composed of

A
  • water
  • electrolytes
  • non-electrolytes
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25
Q

define electrolytes

A
  • compounds that dissociate into ions (such as salt) when dissolved in water
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26
Q

define non-electrolytes

A
  • compounds that do not dissociate into ions in water
  • ex: glucose
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27
Q

describe the semi-permeability of membranes of the body

A
  • permeable to certain types of solutes and water
  • impermeable to many solutes, especially those with charge
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28
Q

define thermodymanics

A
  • study of energy and energy transformations
  • governed by the laws of thermodynamics
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29
Q

define systems and surroundings in thermodynamics

A
  • system: matter under study
  • surroundings: everything outside the system
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30
Q

define open and closed system

A
  • open: energy can be exchanged with it’s surroundings
  • closed: cannot exchange energy with it’s surroundings
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31
Q

are biological systems open or closed

A
  • open
  • energy is exchanged with surroundings
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32
Q

where does excess water, electrolytes, and wastes go in the body

A
  • transported to the kidneys to be excreted
  • helps maintain osmotic balance
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33
Q

what happens if there is no mechanism to regulate osmotic pressure

A
  • accumulation of toxic waste and water
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34
Q

does osmoregulation directly affect blood pressure

A
  • yes
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35
Q

how is the excretory system involved in osmoregulation

A
  • excretory system removes waste from the body through the skin as sweat, lungs as carbon dioxide, and urinary system as urine
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36
Q

what structures is the urinary system composed of

A
  • kidneys
  • ureter
  • urinary bladder
  • urethra
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37
Q

define kidneys

A
  • pair of bean shaped organs located below the liver
  • each contains millions of nephrons that filter metabolic waste from the blood, concentrate it, and form urine
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38
Q

define ureter

A
  • tubes that carry urine out of the kidneys and empty into the bladder where urine is collected
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39
Q

define urethra

A
  • tube that allows urine to flow out of the bladder and the body
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40
Q

describe how blood enters the kidney to be filtered

A
  • blood enters from the aorta into the renal artery and then into the kidneys
  • blood is distributed through smaller vessels in the kidney until it reaches nephrons
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41
Q

describe how blood leaves the kidney after being filtered

A
  • blood collects and leaves through the renal vein which then joins the inferior vena cava
  • water and ions are reabsorbed into the circulatory system
  • waste is collected and leaves through the ureter into the bladder
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42
Q

how do animals obtain their nutrients

A
  • consumption of other organisms
  • must convert macromolecules to simple molecules required for maintaining cellular function
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43
Q

what are the two steps for converting food consumed to nutrients

A
  • digestion (physical and chemical)
  • absorption
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44
Q

describe the pathway of food through the digestive system

A
  • begins in the mouth
  • enters esophagus
  • enters acidic stomach
  • further breakdown in small intestine
  • waste travels to the large intestine
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45
Q

where does digestion begin

A
  • mouth/oral cavity
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46
Q

what is the pH of the stomach

A
  • 1.5 to 2.5
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47
Q

what is the purpose of the stomach being acidic

A
  • kills microbes
  • breaks down food tissues
  • activates digestive enzymes (pepsin)
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48
Q

what occurs to food in the small intestine

A
  • bile from the liver and enzymes produced from the small intestine and pancreas continue breakdown
  • smaller molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream through the small intestine lining
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49
Q

what occurs to food in the large intestine

A
  • water is absorbed
  • drier waste is compacted into feces
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50
Q

what types of digestion take place in the oral cavity

A
  • physical: mastication (chewing)
  • chemical: saliva enzymes
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51
Q

what does saliva include and what does each component do

A
  • mucus to moisten food
  • buffers to balance pH of food
  • lysozyme enzyme for antibacterial action
  • amylase enzyme to convert starches into maltose
  • lipase enzyme produced in the tongue to break down fats
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52
Q

define bolus

A
  • term for the mass of food that is created after chewing and wetting food in the oral cavity
  • what gets swallowed
  • moved by the tongue into the pharynx
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53
Q

describe how food moves through the esophagus

A
  • smooth muscles undergo peristalsis: wave-like muscle contractions
  • peristalsis is involuntary and unidirectional (moved in one direction)
  • gastro-esophageal sphincter at the end of the esophagus opens in response to swallowing and the bolus enters the stomach
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54
Q

define sphincter

A
  • ring-like muscles that form valves in the digestive system
  • gastro-esophageal sphincter connects esophagus and stomach
  • pyloric sphincter connected stomach and small intestine
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55
Q

where does a large part of digestion take place

A
  • stomach
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56
Q

what digestive enzyme is in the stomach and what does it break down

A
  • pepsin
  • digests proteins
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57
Q

what types of digestion take place in the stomach

A
  • physical: contraction and relaxation of smooth muscles
  • chemical: enzymes (pepsin)
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58
Q

define chyme

A
  • partially digested food/gastric juice mixture
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59
Q

define gastric emptying and the time it happens

A
  • movement of chyme from stomach to small intestine through pyloric sphincter
  • occurs 2-6 hours after a meal
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60
Q

why is only a small amount of chyme emptied into the small intestine at a time

A
  • pH of stomach 2; pH of small intestine 7
  • small amount released to neutralize pH gradually
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61
Q

what is the movement of chyme into the small intestine regulated by

A
  • hormones
  • stomach distension
  • muscular reflexes affecting the pyloric sphincter
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62
Q

how is the lining of the stomach protected form pepsin activity and the acidic pH

A
  • mucus layer in stomach protects underlying tissue
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63
Q

what does the small intestine do

A
  • digestion of protein, fats, and carbohydrates is completed
  • absorption begins
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64
Q

define villi and microvilli

A
  • villi: finger-like projections on the surface of the small intestine lining, multiple epithelial cells folded up make a villi
  • microvilli: on the surface of each epithelial cell
65
Q

where is nutrients absorbed from digested food and released into the bloodstream in the small intestine

A
  • epithelial cells
66
Q

why are villi and microvilli important

A
  • create many folds in the small intestine
  • increase surface area and absorption efficiency
67
Q

describe villi in a person with celiac disease

A
  • villi are compressed down
  • nutrients cannot be absorbed effectively
68
Q

how big is the small intestine

A
  • 6 meters
  • 19.6 feet
69
Q

what are the 3 parts of the small intestine in order

A
  • duodenum
  • jejunum
  • ileum
70
Q

what is chyme mixed with in the small intestine

A
  • pancreatic juices
  • bile
71
Q

define pancreatic juices

A
  • alkaline solution that neutralizes acidity
  • contains digestive enzymes that break down starches, disaccharides, proteins, and fats
72
Q

define bile

A
  • contains bile salts which make lipids accessible to water-soluble enzymes
  • produce by liver
  • stored and concentrated in the gallbladder
  • enters the duodenum through the bile duct
73
Q

define the ileocecal valve

A
  • separates the ileum of the small intestine from the cecum of the large intestine
74
Q

what happens to nutrients and undigested food in the small intestine

A
  • nutrients (monosaccharides, amino acids, bile salts, vitamins, etc): absorbed by cells of intestinal lining
  • undigested food: sent to the colon from the ileum through the ileocecal valve
75
Q

how does the size of the large intestine compare to the size of the small intestine

A
  • large intestine shorter in length but larger in diameter
76
Q

what happens in the large intestine

A
  • reabsorbs water from indigestible food
  • processes waste materials
77
Q

what are the 3 parts of the large intestine

A
  • cecum
  • colon
  • rectum
78
Q

define cecum

A
  • joins ileum to colon
  • receiving pouch for waste
79
Q

define colon

A
  • home to intestinal flora: bacteria that aid in digestive processes
80
Q

define rectum

A
  • stores feces
  • propelled using peristaltic movement during elimination through anus
  • regulated by 2 sphincters
81
Q

what are the 4 regions of the colon

A
  • ascending colon
  • transverse colon
  • descending colon
  • sigmoid colon
82
Q

what is the purpose of accessory organs in the digestive system

A
  • add secretions and enzymes that break down food into nutrients
  • liver, gallbladder, pancreas
83
Q

define liver

A
  • produces bile which breaks down fats
  • processes absorbed vitamins and fatty acids
84
Q

define gallbladder

A
  • small organ that stores bile
85
Q

define pancreas

A
  • produces enzymes for digestion of protein and carbohydrates
  • secretes bicarbonate buffer that neutralizes acidic chyme
86
Q

what are digestible and indigestible carbs broken down into

A
  • digestible carbs: glucose
  • indigestible carbs: cellulose (dietary fiber)
87
Q

what are excess sugars converted to and where are they stored

A
  • glucose converted to glycogen
  • stored in liver and muscles
88
Q

what happens if excess sugar reserves are full

A
  • glucose converted to fatty acids
  • stored in adipose tissue cell (fat cells)
89
Q

are proteins obtained directly from food

A
  • no
  • must be broken down into amino acids and then used to make protein
90
Q

how many essential amino acids are there

A
  • 9
91
Q

why are fats required in a diet

A
  • significant source of energy
  • fatty acids needed to make lipid membranes
  • aids absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and production of fat-soluble hormones
92
Q

define essential nutrients

A
  • nutrients that must be eaten because the body cannot produce them
  • vitamins, minerals, essential fatty acids, essential amino acids
93
Q

define vitamins

A
  • organic molecules required in small quantities
  • many assist with enzyme function (called coenzymes)
94
Q

define minerals

A
  • inorganic nutrients that must be obtained from food
  • act as enzyme cofactors
95
Q

define essential fatty acids

A
  • needed to make some membrane phospholipids
  • omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid
  • omega-6 linoleic acid
96
Q

define essential amino acids

A
  • 9 amino acids that the human body cannot synthesize
97
Q

define circulatory system

A
  • system that circulates nutrients, O2, CO2, and waste through the blood
  • regulates blood pressure by heart beating
98
Q

define respiratory system

A
  • system that obtains O2 for cellular respiration and removes CO2 created by cellular respiration
99
Q

what occurs during inhalation

A
  • diaphragm descends creating negative pressure on the lungs
  • lungs inflate as you draw in air through your nasal cavity
100
Q

how is the air you inhaled prepared before it enters your lungs

A
  • warmed and humidified by mucous membranes
  • hair, mucus, and cilia in the nasal passages remove particulates from the air
101
Q

describe the passage of air through the respiratory system

A
  • nasal cavity
  • pharynx
  • larynx
  • trachea
  • bronchi
  • bronchioles
  • alveoli duct
  • alveolar sac
  • alveoli
102
Q

define trachea

A
  • cylinder about 10 to 12 inches long
  • rings of muscle and cartilage for structural support
  • lined with mucus secreting ciliated cells to filter particles
  • connects the pharynx to the lungs
103
Q

how many bronchi are divided from the trachea

A
  • two primary bronchi
  • going into the right and left lung
104
Q

define bronchioles

A
  • less than 1mm (0.03 inches)
  • split from bronchi and spread through the lung
  • final bronchioles called respiratory bronchioles
105
Q

what is attached to each respiratory bronchiole

A
  • alveoli duct containing alveoli sacs
  • alveoli sacs containing 20 to 30 individual alveoli
106
Q

where does gas exchange occur

A
  • alveoli
  • thin-walled structures that have direct contact with capillaries
  • allows diffusion of O2 and CO2
107
Q

what is the estimated surface area of alveoli

A
  • 100m^2
  • half the area of a tennis court
108
Q

what is the circulatory system composed of

A
  • network of vessels: arteries, veins, capillaries
  • heart
109
Q

define arteries

A
  • move blood away from the heart
  • most move oxygenated blood; exception is pulmonary artery
110
Q

define veins

A
  • move blood towards the heart
  • most carry deoxygenated blood; exception is pulmonary vein
111
Q

how does blood circulate inside vessels

A
  • unidirectionally (one way)
  • from the heart; around one of two paths; back to the heart
  • closed system
112
Q

is the circulatory an open or closed system

A
  • closed system
  • invertebrates have open circulatory system
113
Q

what are the two circuits in the circulatory system

A
  • pulmonary circuit
  • systemic circuit
114
Q

define pulmonary circuit

A
  • blood moving between the heart and lungs
  • pumped from right side of the heart
115
Q

define systemic circuit

A
  • blood moving between the heart and body
  • pumped from left side of the heart
116
Q

describe the heart

A
  • muscle consisting of two pumps (pulmonary and systemic)
  • asymmetrical (left side larger)
  • divided into 4 chambers
117
Q

why is the left side of the heart larger than the right

A
  • left side has to pump blood around the whole body, greater distance to cover
118
Q

define tricuspid valve

A
  • located between the right atrium and ventricle
  • prevents backflow from right ventricle to right atrium during systole (contraction)
119
Q

define mitral/bicuspid valve

A
  • located between the left atrium and ventricle
  • prevents backflow from left ventricle to left atrium during systole (contraction)
120
Q

define pulmonary valve

A
  • located between right ventricle and pulmonary artery
  • prevents backflow during diastole (relaxation)
121
Q

define aortic valve

A
  • located between left ventricle and aorta
  • prevents backflow during diastole (relaxation)
122
Q

what is the function of the right side of the heart

A
  • pumps blood to the lungs so it can be oxygenated
123
Q

what is the function of the left side of the heart

A
  • pumps oxygenated blood to the body
124
Q

define cardiac cycle

A
  • flow of blood through the heart coordinated by electrochemical signals that cause the heart muscle to contract and relax
125
Q

define diastole

A
  • relaxation
  • blood flows into the heart while all chambers are relaxed
126
Q

define systole

A
  • contraction
  • chambers push blood through valves
  • from atria into ventricles
  • from ventricle out of the heart
127
Q

what are the 3 phases of the cardiac cycle

A
  • cardiac diastole
  • atrial systole and ventricular diastole
  • atrial diastole and ventricular systole
128
Q

describe the first phase of the cardiac cycle

A
  • cardiac diastole
  • all chambers are relaxed and blood flows into the heart
129
Q

describe the second phase of the cardiac cycle

A
  • atrial systole and ventricular diastole
  • ventricles remain relaxed while atrial systole pushes blood into the ventricles
130
Q

describe the third phase of the cardiac cycle

A
  • atrial diastole and ventricular systole
  • after the atria relax, ventricles contract, pushing blood out of the heart
131
Q

where does the hearts electrochemical signals start

A
  • sinoatrial (SA) node
  • outside of right atrium
  • causes atria to contract
132
Q

where does the hearts electrochemical signal move after the atria contract

A
  • atrioventricular (AV) node
  • in right atrium, near ventricles
  • causes ventricles to contract
133
Q

where is blood from the superior vena cava from

A
  • head and upper body
134
Q

where is blood from the inferior vena cava from

A
  • trunk, lower body, and visceral organs
135
Q

define aorta

A
  • main artery of systemic circulation
  • branches into arteries that take blood to limbs and organs
136
Q

define capillary beds

A
  • diverged from arterioles
  • contain 10s to 100s of capillaries that branch among the cells of the body
137
Q

define endocrine system

A
  • collection of glands that secrete chemical messages called hormones
  • work in coordination with the nervous system to help maintain homeostasis
138
Q

which two body systems help to maintain homeostasis

A
  • nervous
  • endocrine
139
Q

describe the differences between the nervous and endocrine system

A
  • nervous: uses electrical messages, works quickly, response is short-lived
  • endocrine: uses chemical messages, works slowly, response is short or long-lived
140
Q

define hormones

A
  • chemicals that regulate or control the activity of certain cells or organs
  • stimulate a response in cells that have receptors to bind to them (only affect these target cells)
  • coordinates many different systems and organs
141
Q

how do hormones work

A
  • released by cells in one area of the body
  • circulate through the body in body fluids (often blood) to target cells
  • binds to intracellular hormone receptors
  • affects cells in other parts of the body
142
Q

what are hormones a mechanism of communication for

A
  • between neighboring cells
  • between cells and tissues in distant parts of the body
143
Q

where can hormone receptors be found

A
  • on or in many cells
  • may be limited to a small number of specialized cells
144
Q

do all cells respond to the same hormone; why or why not

A
  • no
  • cells have different receptors that bind to different hormones
145
Q

can cells have many receptors to the same hormone

A
  • yes
146
Q

can cells have receptors for different types of hormones

A
  • yes
147
Q

what does the number of receptors on a cell determine

A
  • sensitivity of the cell to that hormone
  • can change over time: up regulation and down regulation
148
Q

define up regulation

A
  • number of receptors increases making the cell more sensitive
149
Q

define down regulation

A
  • number of receptors decreases reducing cellular response
150
Q

define pituitary gland

A
  • located at the base of the brain
  • does a LOT
151
Q

define pineal gland

A
  • located behind thalamus in the brain
  • “third eye”
  • secretes melatonin and helps with circadian rhythm
152
Q

define thyroid gland

A
  • located in the neck
  • stimulates metabolism
  • reduces blood calcium levels
153
Q

define parathyroid gland

A
  • located on the surface of the thyroid
  • increases blood calcium levels
154
Q

define adrenal glands

A
  • located by the kidneys
  • stimulates fight or flight response
155
Q

define pancreas

A
  • located between the stomach and small intestine
  • contain exocrine and endocrine cells
156
Q

define thymus

A
  • located behind the sternum
  • contributes to immune system development
157
Q

define endocrine glands

A
  • release hormones into body fluids (usually blood) that carries them throughout the body
158
Q

define exocrine glands

A
  • secretes chemicals through ducts that lead outside of the gland (not to the blood)
159
Q

describe the regulation of hormone production

A
  • concentration of hormones in blood is maintained within a narrow range
  • primarily controlled by negative feedback

BIOL 107 (18 decks)

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