Key definitions Flashcards
Somatic Nervous System:
The subsection of the peripheral nervous system that is connected to the skeletal muscles and sense organs
Autonomic Nervous System:
The subsection of the peripheral nervous system that is connected to internal organs
Sympathetic Nervous System:
The subsection of the autonomic nervous system that is active during states of stress or strenuous activity, responsible for the fight or flight response
Parasympathetic Nervous System:
The subsection of the autonomic nervous system that is active during states of relaxation, responsible for rest and digest processes
Nerve:
Bundles of axons extending from many neurons.
Neuron:
Nervous system cells that communicate via electrochemical signals.
Neurotransmitter:
Chemicals which allow the transmission from one neuron to the next across synapses
Action Potential:
A short-lived change in electric charge inside a neuron which results in the transmission of an electrical impulse
Resting Potential:
The slight negative charge inside an inactive neuron.
Threshold:
The level of depolarisation before an action potential will fire.
Dopamine:
A neurotransmitter involved in conscious movement, learning, memory, and emotion.
Serotonin:
A neurotransmitter involved in sleep, wakefulness, appetite and mood.
Adrenaline:
A hormone created in response to stress and/or fear which acts to instigate the fight or flight response.
Learning:
A relatively permanent change, often of behaviour, that occurs as a result of experience
Classical Conditioning:
a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the first stimulus is eventually elicited by the second stimulus alone (Pavlov,
Operant Conditioning:
Learning that occurs as a result of rewards or punishments as a consequences of behaviours.
Observational learning:
New behaviour or modification of a current behaviour which occurs as a result of watching others and copying them
Modelling:
To exhibit a behaviour in such a way as to promote similar behaviours in others.
Attention:
The extent to which the subject is focused on the behaviour and/or interested by it
Retention:
The extent to which a subject remembers the behaviour
Reproduction:
The ability of the subject to reproduce the behaviour
Motivation:
The extent to which the subject is willing to perform the behaviour
Token Economies:
A type of psychotherapy in which people are rewarded for good behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges or tangible rewards
Saturation:
The overexposure of one type of reinforcement or punishment
Phobias:
An anxiety response to something that is out of proportion to the threat
Systematic Desensitization:
The application of classical conditioning to treat phobias and other anxiety problems
Graduated Exposure:
When patients are gradually exposed to a stimuli they are unreasonably afraid of so that they will realise that they are not in danger
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy:
A form of psychotherapy that aims to change behaviours by modifying the thought process that leads to them
Language:
The method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way.
LAD:
Chomsky: Language Acquisition Device; the innate biological ability of humans to acquire and develop language.
LASS:
Bruner: Language Acquisition Support System; the process in which adults help children learn language
Scaffolding:
process in which parents model or demonstrate a task, then encourage the child to do the same while offering support if needed.
Joint attention:
the shared focus of parent and child on an object
Communication style:
The distinctive way in which people of different cultures, socioeconomic backgrounds and genders use language
Restricted code:
Berenstein: speech patterns that are characteristic of working class people
Elaborative code:
Berenstein: a style of language associated with upper/ middle-class people and formal situations
Report talk:
Tannen: A style of speech used to gain and hold attention, and to negotiate or maintain status
Rapport talk:
Tannen: a style of speech used to establish relationships, develop understanding and negotiate differences.
Socialisation:
The acquisition of beliefs, values and behaviours necessary to function effectively as a member of society.
Attachment:
A close emotional bond between a child and their parent or caregiver (Harlow, Bowlby)
Critical Period:
A period during development in which a particular skill or characteristic is believed to be most readily acquired
(Harlow, Bowlby)
Strange Situation:
The strange situation classification is an attachment assessment technique designed for young children, which was developed by psychologist Mary Ainsworth
Secure Attachment:
Ainsworth: A secure emotional bond between parent and child characterized during the SSC by the child showing distress when the caregiver leaves but being easily comforted when they return when they return.
Insecure Resistant:
Ainsworth: An insecure emotional bond between parent and child characterised during the SSC by the child showing severe distress when their caregiver leaves and being ambivalent or inconsolable when they return
Insecure Avoidant:
Ainsworth: An insecure emotional bond between parent and child characterised during the SSC by the child showing limited emotional responses when the caregiver leaves and returns
Insecure Disorganised:
Ainsworth: An insecure emotional bond between parent and child characterised during the SSC by the child showing contradictory behaviours towards the caregiver
Authoritative:
Baumrind: A parenting style characterised by a high level of both responsiveness and control
Authoritarian:
Baumrind: A parenting style characterised by a high level of control but a low level of responsiveness
Permissive:
Baumrind: A parenting style characterised by a high level of responsiveness but a low level of control.
Uninvolved:
Baumrind: A parenting style characterised by a low level of both responsiveness and control.
Conflict:
Behaviour that occurs when two or more parties perceive that they have incompatible goals, ideas or behaviours.
Imposed solution:
Dictated solutions, which usually lead to one party winning, while the underlying conflict is not resolved
Integrative solution:
Win-win solutions where both sides can benefit from the decision reached
Distributive solution:
A solution that involves compromise or mutual concessions
Counselling:
the provision of professional assistance and guidance in resolving a problem
Mediation:
Bringing in a neutral third party to assist in resolving the dispute
Negotiation:
When two parties have some shared interests they can have a discussion with the aim of reaching a compromise and/or breaking down misunderstandings.
Development:
The progressive acquisition, elaboration and advancement of intelligence, understanding and ability.
Schema:
Piaget: an idea or understanding about what something is and how to deal with it
Accommodation:
Piaget: Changing our schemas to include new experiences and information that cannot fit into existing schemas
Assimilation:
Piaget: A process by which individuals include new experiences and information in their currant schemas
Morality:
Kohlberg: An individuals system of beliefs and values concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad behaviour.
Moral dilemma:
Kolberg: Amoral dilemmais a conflict in which you have to choose between two or more actions and havemoral reasons for choosing each action.
Identity:
All of the beliefs, ideals and values that help shape and guide a persons behavior
Sense of self:
an understanding of the nature of the self as distanced from others in terms of enduring personality characteristics
Basic virtues:
Erickson: The main strength or understanding achieved from each psychosocial crisis.
Psychosocial crisis:
Erickson: critical conflicts between personal needs and social expectation during development where someone either achieves or fails to achieve a basic virtue.
Personality:
A persons unique and consistent behavioral and cognitive patterns.
Trait theory:
A theory that states personality is composed of a number of identifiable unique and enduring characteristics that predispose an individual to behave in a certain way. (McCrae and Costa)
Trait:
A characteristic way in which a person thinks, feels and behaves. (McCrae and Costa)
Surface traits:
Traits that are easily inferred from someone’s normal behavior (McCrae and Costa)
Source traits:
Fundamental basic dimensions of personality that are harder to infer (McCrae and Costa)
Humanistic theory:
A theory that personality is what develops as people strive to reach their full potential (Maslow, Rogers)
Social cognitive theory:
A theory that personality is developed through a combination of self determined ideals and observational learning. (Bandura, Mischel)
Reciprocal determinism:
A person’s behavior is both influenced by and influences their environment and personal factors such as thoughts and feelings.
(Bandura)
Self efficacy:
A belief that one has the ability to achieve an effective outcome
(Bandura)
Competencies:
Our intellectual capabilities as well as skills
Mischel
Cognitive strategies:
The different perceptions and methods of dealing with of a specific event.
(Mischel)
Expectancies:
The anticipated results of different behaviors
Mischel
Subjective values:
The respective value of different possible outcomes of various behaviors
(Mischel)
Self regulatory systems:
The groups of rules and standards that people adapt to in order to regulate their environment
(Mischel)
Group Polarization:
Discussions in a group, where members all hold similar views, tend to strengthen these opinions
(Myers and Bishop)
Normative Social Influence:
Conformity to standards in order to be part of a group and be accepted
(Asch)
Informational social influence:
Taking cues from other people about how to behave in unknown/new situations
(Asch)
Cognitive Dissonance:
Used to describe the feeling of discomfort that results from holding two conflicting beliefs or when there is a discrepancy
(Festinger)
Attribution:
Attribution theory is a Social Psychological theory that relates to the way in which people explain their own behavior and that of others.
(Heider, Kelley)
Internal Attribution:
The process of assigning the cause of behavior to some internal characteristic, rather than to outside forces such as personality traits.
(Heider, Kelley)
External Attribution:
The process of assigning the cause of behavior to some situation or event outside a person’s control rather than to some internal characteristic.
(Heider, Kelley)
Consensus:
the extent to which other people behave in the same way in a similar situation.
(Kelley)
Distinctiveness:
the extent to which the person behaves in the same way in other situations.
(Kelley)
Consistency:
the extent to which the person behaves like this every time the situation occurs.
(Kelley)
Fundamental Attribution Error:
The tendency for an observer, when interpreting and explaining the behavior of another person, to underestimate the situation and to overestimate the personal disposition.
(Kelley)
Sense of community:
a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members needs will be met through their commitment to be together.
(McMillan and Chavis)
Membership:
feeling of belonging or sharing a sense of personal relatedness
(McMillan and Chavis)
Influence:
A sense of mattering, of making a difference to a group and of the group mattering to its members
(McMillan and Chavis)
Integration and fulfilment of needs:
feelings that members needs will be met by the resources received through their membership in the group
(McMillan and Chavis)
Shared emotional connection:
The commitment and belief that members have shared and will share history, common places time together and similar experiences
(McMillan and Chavis)
Stress:
a state of mental or emotional strain or tension resulting from adverse or demanding circumstances
Predictability:
how informed someone is about the details of a situation; the more information they know the less stressful it is
Controllability:
the extent to which someone can influence the situation; the higher the controllability the less stressful it is
Threat/loss:
thepotential for an event ton have negative consequences; the more likely it is to have a negative impact and/or the larger the impact, the more stressful it is
Vulnerable groups:
demographics within a community which are the most negatively effected by a catastrophic event
PTSD:
a condition of persistent mental and emotional stress occurring as a result of injury or severe psychological shock
Resilience:
an individuals tendency to cope with stress and adversity
Kobasa
PTG:
Positive psychological change experiences as a result of adversity
