History - Medicine Flashcards
Why did Galen have such a big impact on medicine in the medieval world
Galen became influential because his ideas were very much compatible with the Church’s belief. Also the importance of books and the lack of alternative theories.
What did people believe caused a disease in the Middle Ages
they believed disease was a curse from God. They also believed that your sickness was caused by your four humours (liquids in your body) being out of balance.
What elements of the Medieval world were stagnant
- Public health facilities and law
- ideas about the cause of disease
- Ideas about the treatment of disease
- Ideas about staying healthy
- Training of doctors
- Hospitals
What was the medieval mindset
Religion was highly valued - dominance
There was emphasis of death - mind set was not conducive to discovery. Rationale to existence was to either end up in heaven or end up in hell. The church filtered knowledge - had so much power.
How did the importance of book learning help Galen’s influence
Many people could not read in the Middle Ages meaning that being widely read was a sign of a good physician. Having read the works of Hippocrates and Galen was proof that a physician was worth the money that he was being paid. The authority of these classical texts were so strong that people believed them even when there was physical evidence that suggested they.
How did the lack of alternative theories help Galen’s influence
Dissections were mostly illegal because the church taught that the body needed to buried whole in order for the soul to go to heaven. Very occasionally physicians were able to dissect executed criminals, or criminals who had been sentenced to death by vivisection. When this happened the physician would sit far away from the body, reading from the works of Galen, while the actual cutting and dissection was done by the barber surgeon.
How did Medieval people treat disease using religious methods
- spiritual healing - including healing prayers and incarnations.
- pilgrimages to the tombs of people noted for their healing powers became popular
- touching holy relics
How did Medieval people treat disease as a result of the theory of the four humours
- medieval people did not recognise that treating the cause of the illness will eventually treat the symptoms
- blood letting was the most common treatment for the imbalance of humours. It was thought that removing some blood would remove bad humours
- Purging was used as it was believed that the humours were created from the food eaten so they must be removed from the digestive system
How did Medieval people treat disease using herbal remedies
- treated with herbal infusions to drink, sniff or bathe in - aloe vera was prescribed to improve digestion
- a common remedy mixed a sold was “theriaca” which was a spiced based mixture that contained over 70 different spices
How did Medieval people treat disease through the supernatural
- supernatural remedies were available but were not approved by the church
- chanting incarnations and using charms to heal symptoms were fairly common
- Sometimes the sick were discouraged from using cures as if God sent the disease to purge the soul it was important for the disease to run its course
How did the theory of the four humours explain the cause of disease and who created this idea
- stated that as the universe was made up of 4 basic elements (fire, water, earth and air) the body must be made up of 4 humours - phlegm, blood, black bile and choler.
These humours must be balanced and equal otherwise you become ill - Theory came form, Hippocrates
How did the miasma theory explain the causes of disease
- A miasma was bad air believed to be filled with toxic fumes
- Hippocrates and Galen both wrote about Miasmata and suggested that corpses and other rotting material could transmit disease
- A sweet and clean smelling home was seen as a sign of spiritual cleanliness
- If a person was unwashed others would avoid them
How did astrology explain the cause of disease
- The alignment of the planets and starts was considered very important
- After the black death arrived astrology seemed more popular as many people believed the black death was due to a bad alignment of planets
How did the Medieval people prevent disease through religious methods
- most people led a life free of sin- regular prayers and confessions helped to ensure that any minor sins were quickly forgiven
How did the Medieval people prevent disease through the Regimen Sanitatis
The Regimen Sanitatis was a list of loose instructions provided by the physicians to help a patient maintain good health.
Appeared first on the work of Hippocrates where it was later picked up by Galen
This service was only available to the very rich because it took a long time to write
Bathing was also a preventative measure as it removed bad smells however only the wealthy could afford a bath of hot water.
People also tried to maintain a clean home
How did the Medieval people prevent disease through diet
Since the humours were thought to be produced by digestion eating too much was strongly discouraged. The fear of digestive problems leading to death were so great that people purged themselves either by purging or using laxatives
Why were apothecaries very important
Apothecaries are extremely important as they are cheaper than physicians and knowledge of herbal remedies
What was a physicians role as a medieval medicand how did was medicine proffesionalised
During the Middle Ages, new universities were set up across Europe such as Oxford and Cambridge which enabled medicine to become more professional.
The main role of a physician was to diagnose illness and recommend a course of treatment.
When did the word ‘doctor’ become common
the word ‘doctor’ did not become common until the 17th century
Why did physicians rarely get involved in treating patients
treating the patients was left up to the less educated midwives, apothecaries or barber surgeons.
Most physicians were were clergymen, who were forbidden from carrying out procedures such as bleeding.
How would a consulation with a physician go
- The physician would look at a sample of the patient’s urine, faeces and blood, all of which would be collected and sent to him.
- He would also consult the astrological chart under which the patient was born and the time they fell sick
- Based on this and the humeral tendencies of the patient, the physician would create a course of treatment.
When was the law passed for forbidding clergymen to carry out any operations likely to involve cutting the patient
1215
Why were physicians very expensive
training to become a physician took a very long time so there weren’t many of them.
What was the role of apothecaries
Apothecaries mainly mixed herbal remedies.
How did apothecaries have a good understanding of the healing powers of herbs and plants
they studied herbal manuals such as Materia Medica and their own experiences or passed down from family members
Why did physicians see apothecaries as a threat to their livelihood
Apothecaries did not just create remedies they also prescribed poison which went against an idea fundamental to physicians - that they should do no harm. This goes back to the Hippocratic Oath
What was the role of barber surgeons
they were the least qualified medical professionals in England . Since good barbers sharp knives and a steady hand, they regularly performed small surgeries as well as pulling teeth and bleeding patients.
What were the standard of hospitals in the medieval period
The number of hospitals in England was on the rise. However many hospitals did not actually treat the sick and instead offered hospitality. Hospitals were a place for patients to rest and recover. The space was kept very clean which was a large part of the nuns duty.
By 1500 how many hospitals were there in England
There was an estimated 1,100 hospitals, ranging in size from just a few beds to hundreds.
How many hospitals did Bury St Edmunds have and who did they cater for in the middle ages
bury St Edmunds had at least 6 hospitals to cater for lepers, the infirm and the old
How much control did the church have over hospitals in the middle ages
About 30% of the hospitals in England were owned and run by the Church
Whose responsibility was it took take care of the sick in the medieval period
Christians and hospitals were run by monks
How many inmates did the hospitals have in the middle ages
12 inmates in memory of Jesus’s 12 disciplines
What type of diseases were not often admitted into medieval hospitals
infectious diseases or incurable conditions
What type of care did patients receive in medieval hospitals
care for the soul, combined with rest, warmth and food
What was the role of a warden in medieval hospitals
they would decide whether the prospective patient would get in or not
When did the black death arrive in England
1348
How many people did the Black Death kill
estimated to have killed at least 33% of the population
How long dod it take for England to recover from the black death
300 years
Why did people think astrology caused the black death
there was an unusual alignment between mars, Jupiter and Saturn during 1345. Astrologers said this was evidence something awful was going to happen
Why did people think religion caused the black death
Many people believed that it was a punishment from God
What did people think caused the black death in terms of the Miasma theory
Miasma theory was by far the most important theory in the medieval period. In particular people believed that the miasma was created by stinking rubbish in the cities.
How did the medieval people treat the black death
- light fires to purify air
- many went on pilgrimages to pray for God’s forgiveness at the tomb of Saints
- Purging was tried in the early years. eg. drilling holes in the skull to relieve the excess fluids
- Keeping birds to fly around the house
How did the higher powers help to treat the black death
The kings and Bishops ordered services and processions in every Church
How did the medieval people attempt to prevent the black death religiously
Praying and fasting
Going on pilgrimages
Show God how sorry you are by going on flagellants
How did the government take action for the black death
There was very little government responsibility to the Black Death. The Monarchial government believed that they had limited responsibility in relation to health care.
There was some limited action at a local level - people new to a town were ordered to stay away from inhabitants for 40 days but local governments had no power to enforce these laws and often they were ineffective.
How does the pace of change differ in the renaissance period from the medieval period
The pace of change picks up but was not transformative as ideas remain an elite phenomenon
How did caring for the sick change in the renaissance period
- Hospitals began to increase the focus on curing conditions where before they had exclusively concentrated on providing respite for the sick therefore people didn’t stay as long in the middle ages
- Hospitals developed links with physicians
- The Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII greatly weakened the control of the church over medical care but it also reduced the availability of hospital care
- There was more diversification in hospital types. There was an understanding that disease could be spread from person to person and this meant that hospitals developed for particular conditions
- Some hospitals were taken over by town councils as a result of the dissolution and this represented an increase on the role of local government in medical care
- Due to the printing press doctors had better access to medical text books and there were a wider rage of texts
- New ideas about the human anatomy and iatrochemistry started to be shared and this inspired old ideas to be challenged
- Dissection was legalised but it was very difficult to get hold of a fresh corpse
- Surgeons and apothecaries now had to possess licenses to be able to practice their trade
- Education for medical professions increased 0- new weaponry, new technology on the battlefield meant more surgery was needed
What elements of caring for the sick in the medieval period stayed the same in the renaissance period
- Hospitals still had an emphasis on rest and recuperation. They were still a place where people could get access to a much, many still looked after poor people.
- Most sick people continued to be treated at home
- The role of apothecaries and surgeons remained the same
- Physicians were still trained at universities with few changes to training courses Most learning was still done from books rather than experience
- The guild system created in the medieval period continued to train apothecaries - it would take years to become a master apothecary or surgeon
- Surgeon and apothecaries were still the cheaper options for those who could not afford a physician
What did Thomas Sydenham contribute to medical knowledge or practice
Nicknamed ‘the English Hippocrates’ because of how much emphasis he put on diagnosis
He refused to rely on medical textbooks - didn’t believe in the value of theoretical knowledge
He argued that it was important to undertake scientific research and to closely observe the symptom of disease
he was one of the first people to differentiate Scarlett fever and measles
he began to classify disease
What did William Harvey contribute to medical knowledge or practice
Disproved Galen’s theory that blood was made in the liver. He did this through dissection and observation
Showed that veins carried blood only and that the heart was a pump.
Was a physician to King James I
Where did Andreas Vesalius study
Padua where he became familiar with the work of Vesailus. In particular his work on dissection
What did Andreas Vesalius
contribute to medical knowledge or practice
Vesalius carried out a large number of dissections which allowed him to identify mistakes in Galen’s work such as the fact that the human jaw was made up of one part and not two.
He encouraged others to observe, dissect and record their work rather than relying on old texts.
He published works that had detailed drawings of the body.
Was one of the first people to challenge old ideas
What book did Vesalius publish and when
In 1543 he published the structure of the human body
Why was Sydenham’s work important?
Sydenham catogorised diseases .
Because he encouraged the idea of observation, symptoms of dissection were closely observed
He had a big emphasis on diagnosing patients
Renaissance - What treatment changed since medieval time
Transference - the idea of illness being transferred to something else when rubbed on the ailment
Chemical Cures - Using metals to help treat diseases eg. Mercury was used to treat syphilis
Continuity of the ideas in the renaissance period
Miasma - the idea of miasma continued throughout the renaissance period
Four humours - rejected by scientists but still used by physicians to prescribe treatment
What were two of the names of the detailed drawings that Vesalius made
‘Six anatomical pictures’ and ‘the fabric of the human body’
Why was Vesalius’s work so important
His findings encouraged others to question Galen’s work. The work of Vesalius did not have an immediate impact but it took the first step to allow others to understand what was important
Who was Thomas Sydenham
English Physician
When was Vesalius born
1514
When was Harvey born
1578
What book did Sydenham write, and when
‘medical observations’ 1676
Why was Harvey’s work important
It encouraged other scientists to work on actual bodies. However understanding the idea of circulation of the blood had little practical use in medical treatment so his impact was quite limited.
When was the dissolution of the monasteries
1536
What elements of prevention in the medieval period remained the same in the renaissance period
Cleanliness was still important - both the home and the body needed to be kept clean and free from bad smells
Going on pilgrimages
What elements of prevention in the medieval period remained the changed in the renaissance period
People were more aware of lifestyle so would avoid draughts, exhaustion, rich and fatty foods, strong alcohol and being too lazy
Bathing had become a lot less fashionable in England after the arrival of syphilis which had spread so quickly among people who visited bathhouses in London
What did quarantining during the Black Death show
Shows they realised it spread between people - suggestive there was a shift in the understanding that there is an external component to disease
How did the control of the church change change from medieval to renaissance?
There was a decline in the influence of the church as government increases power slightly. However the power of the church remained central to the lives of most ordinary people.
How did the decline in the influence of the church affect attitudes in society.
Most now believed that God did not send disease. Galen and Hippocrates work was beginning to be questioned by individuals like Vesalius, Harvey and Sydenham, which meant the four humours theory was discredited by physicians and was much more unpopular, although still used in diagnosis.
What helped bring about change in authority for the Catholic Church during the renaissance
The reformation weakened the authority of the Catholic Church. In England it helped bring about the dissolution of the monasteries and this caused some increased involvement of local councils in the development of hospitals.
How did technology change the understanding of medicine and disease from the medieval to renaissance period?
The printing press meant that there were fewer inconsistencies in information. Int helped key ideas to be spread more efficiently and allowed scientists to spread their ideas across Europe in a much quicker fashion. Accelerated the pace of change during the renaissance period.
Who invented the first printing press and when
In around 1440 Johannes Gutenberg invented the first printing press and by 1500 there were undress of printing presses in Europe
Education during renaissance
There was no national education system which meant new idea would only circulate in universities and amongst an educated population
How did attitudes in society change during the renaissance period
A spirit of intellectual enquiry developed, underpinned by the idea that God could not be responsible fort everything - opened up intellectual space for human enquiry. This enabled humanist scholars to read and challenge Galen as opposed to merely accepting those aspects of his ideas which the church approved.
How did technology enable individual’s influence
Physicians were exposed to others work, for example anatomy developed as Harvey was exposed to Versailus’ ideas
