History Alexander II Counter reforms and opposition groups

Question 1

What political counter reforms did Alexander II introduce

Answer 1

• Alexander replaced the more liberal ministers with conservatives. Eg. Dimitry Tolstoy as Minister for education in 1866

Question 2

What political counter reforms did Alexander II introduce (liberal ideas)

Answer 2

• Alexander appointed Mikhail Loris Melikov as Minister of Internal Affairs - He released political prisoners, relaxed censorship and lifted restrictions on the activities of the Zemvsta.
  The Loris Melikov constitution never put into action

Question 3

What education counter reforms did Alexander II introduce

Answer 3

Zemvsta’s power over education was reduced - Tolstoy felt that a tight control over education was essential to eradicate western liberal ideas.
Church regained it’s authority over rural schools. From 1871 onbly students from a gimnaziya (gramma schools) could progress to universities

Question 4

What social counter reforms did Alexander II introduce

Answer 4

Pyotr Shuvalov strengthened the police, encouraged the third section and stepped up the persecution of ethnic and religious minorities
Searches and arrests increased and new governor-generals were established in 1879 with emergency powers to prosecute in military courts.
Opened ‘show trials’ with the intention of deterring others from revolutionary activity.

Question 5

Issue with show trials

Answer 5

Whole experiment backfired and in 1878 political crimes were from the civil courts to special secret courts

Question 6

Key figures of Populists/Narodniks

Answer 6

Sergei Nechaev - dedicated to active revolt
Forerunners of the populists movement

Question 7

Beliefs of the populists/narodniks

Answer 7

Believed intellectuals should share their knowledge with the peasants
Believed in argarian socialism based around the peasant commune
They thought the commune would provide the route to the ‘good’ society without the need to go through capitalism and the evils of industrialisation

Question 8

Tactics of the populists/ narodniks

Answer 8

Decided to ‘go to the people’ and spread their message
Several thousands young people dressed up ads peasants and went to live as peasant. In many villages they found incomprehension and suspicions from peasants and were rejected.
Could be argued that the peasants did share their views on egalitarianism in land holding

Question 9

Repercussion the narodniks tactic

Answer 9

800 narodniks were arrested and imprisoned for their good intentions. Two large trials in 1977 ‘Trial of the 50’ and ‘Trial of the 193’ - many got light sentences and were acquitted - the court did not see them as dangerously subversive

Question 10

Who led the Black Partition

Answer 10

Organised by Georgi Plekhanov with Vera Zasulich

Question 11

Basis if support for Black Partition

Answer 11

Black partition was made up of people who wanted to challenge the autocracy in a peaceful manner

Question 12

Tactics of the Black Partition

Answer 12

Worked peacefully - developed ties with students and workers - published radical material with the hope of stimulating radical change

Question 13

Who led the People’s Will

Answer 13

Led by Alexander Mikchailov

Question 14

Bases of support for People’s Will

Answer 14

Made up of people who want to challenge the autocracy through violent measures

Question 15

Aims of the People’s Will

Answer 15

Determined to use terorist violence to achieve their revolutionary aims
Aims were to see the destruction of the state and land redistributed

Question 16

Key acts of the People’s Will

Answer 16

On 13th March 1881 they assassinated Tsar Alexander II for crimes against the people

Question 17

Most famous members of the Intelligentsia/ Intellectuals and what were they known for

Answer 17

Bakunin - Almost anarchist
Chernyshevsky - In 1862 wrote the influential novel ‘What is to be done?’ which encouraged activists to set up their own groups
Herzen - Edited an influential periodical ‘The Bell’

Question 18

What lessons did Alexander III derive from his father’s reign?

Answer 18

More weary of liberalism - saw how dangerous the great reforms were to the strength of the autocracy

Question 19

Aims of the Intelligentsia

Answer 19

Wanted to enter industrial growth through the avoidance of capitalism
Believed in Western Ideas but was critical of the materialistic mindset that emerged from capitalism
Herzen was intent on overthrowing the the political and social system - believed in the superiority of the peasants

Question 20

Limitations of the influence that the Intelligentsia exerted

Answer 20

The vast majority of Russians were still illiterate and therefore did not have access to philosophical debate and therefore was difficult for intelligentsia to gain support

Question 21

4 Elements of political authority

Answer 21

• Tsarist regime
• Judicial authority
• Provincial authority - how should Russia be governed on an individual level
• Repression - how are individuals policed

Question 22

The importance of autocracy for the fundamentals of the tsarist regime

Answer 22

In 1832 Article I of Fundamental Law states ‘the Emperor of all the Russia is an autocratic and unlimited monarch’ no institutions in Russia acted as a check on the Tsar

Question 23

How was the Tsar viewed in Russia

Answer 23

The Tsar adopted a paternalistic role - he was seen as the ‘father’ of his subjects. His job was to submit his will for their own good

Question 24

How was orthodoxy upheld in Tsarist Russia

Answer 24

Orthodox was a culture as well as a religion
The orthodox church supported the right of the Tsar as an autocratic leader and put a curse on ‘those who do not believe that orthodox monarchs have been elevated to the throne by God’s special grace’
In 1902 the Holy Synod instructed all Bishops to get their priests to condemn any groups that aimed to destroy the authority of the church

Question 25

Importance of nationality on autocracy

Answer 25

Russians had a distinctive way of life, values and beliefs that they believed were superior
Russians believed they had a duty to export their beliefs and customs to other people - leads to the policy of Russification across the empire

Question 26

What did the council of ministers consist of

Answer 26

• Chaired by Tsar
• Officials nominated by the Tsar
• Was an extension of the Tsar rather than acting as a political body to implement change

Question 27

Role of Tsar within governement

Answer 27

• Autocrat in control of policy making and its implementation
• Weak Tsar who was not hands on was a liability as the Tsar was responsible for all policies

Question 28

Issues within the Tsarist State of 1861-1894

Answer 28

• Ministers of departments did not work/ consult with each other which made for an inefficient government, for example, some departments would plan to spend large amounts of money without consulting the minister of finance
• Ministries competed with each other for resources, control of policy and the Tsars attention. For example, the ministry of finance and interior conflicted. The staff drawn for the ministry of finance were from banking and commerce ad wanted change and initiative to flourish, whereas in the military of interior staff were drawn from nobility and resisted change.

Question 29

How was the bureaucracy set up

Answer 29

Bureaucrats in central governments were organised in ranks - there were 14 ranks
- Ordinary citizens resented the bureaucracy’s arbitrary power and excessive authority

Question 30

Corruption within the bureaucracy

Answer 30

Bribe taking was common as it was seen as a legitimate way to supplement ones income - often bureaucrats were more interested in maneuvering to get higher ranks and salaries than working for the public good

Question 31

How did the government work pre Alexander II

Answer 31

There were districts (volosts) had no direct links to central government
They were elected by nobles to protect their interests

Question 32

Main aims of Alexander III in comparison to his father

Answer 32

• Fundamentally Alexander II and III had different opinions on the degree of independence that the Zemstva had
• Alexander II was more open to the autonomy of institutions - took a more holistic approach where as Alex III aimed to limit the power of people and bodies
• Alexander III took a more active role as Tsar

Question 33

Arguments for the imposition of a secret police to be necessary

Answer 33

Russia’s size meant that a secret police was necessary for the preservation of the autocracy
The phycological impacts of being surveilled allows for proaction rather than a reaction
The disorder of the government meant the Tsar had to impose order i the country

Question 34

Why did Alexander II not like the autonomy of the Zemstva or Judicial system

Answer 34

He felt that the Zemstva was too established - a well experienced ‘middle’
The courts acted as a forum for defendants to give speeches and inspire other people to oppose the state
Courts allowed rebellion to thrive

Question 35

Why did the Tsar not eradicate all institutions

Answer 35

The tsar would reveal his worry for their threat he doesn’t want to come across as weak
He was still able to mitigate the threat of their power whilst maintaining their integrity

Question 36

Why was the church given more control under Alexander III

Answer 36

This was not a direct reaction to opposition groups but rather to reinstate the 3 pillars of autocracy
The church was used to ensure the social structure remained intact - Orthodox church was fundamental to Russian culture

Question 37

Main revolutionary groups under Alex II

Answer 37

Populists, radical thinkers and Tchaikovsky circle

Question 38

Main liberal opposition groups under Alex II

Answer 38

Aspects of the ‘intelligentsia’
Manu were in the Zemstva and becoming politically aware of issues - St Petersburg Zemstva demanded a central body
Westernisers/ Slavophiles

Question 39

Liberal opposition - beliefs

Answer 39

Some of the intelligentsia sought ‘the truth’ via philosophical ideas such as nihilism (belief that all values are baseless and that nothing can be known/ communicated) or anarchism

Question 40

Westernisers beliefs

Answer 40

Wanted to mimic western ways - Ivan Turgenev was a key leader in the belief
Westernisers thought that Russia should abandon Slavic traditions and adopt modern western values
Wanted to reduce the authority of the Orthodox Church

Question 41

Slavophiles belief

Answer 41

Favoured a superior ‘Russian’ path to a better future - Leo Tolstoy
Believed Russia had a unique culture that centred on the prevailing peasant society and principles of the orthodox church

Question 42

How was the zemstva a source of liberal opposition

Answer 42

Local decision making encouraged members to think nationally - Alexander III wanted to reform autocracy so the Tsar would rule in conjunction with his subjects - Alex III was not prepared to give them national influence

Question 43

Liberal opposition groups under Alexander III

Answer 43

• The attractions of the Slavophiles diminished in the 1820s as industrialisation became priority where westernised socialism was established
• The famine of 1891-92 was a crucial turning point in the development of opposition groups -

Question 44

Examples of revolutionary groups in Russia

Answer 44

• In June 1862 a series of fires in St Petersburg destroyed over 2,000 shops

Question 45

Affects of great reforms on revolutionary opposition groups

Answer 45

Student idealism and determination were intensified by great reforms and the influence of radical socialist writers

Question 46

Importance of Mikhail Bakunin

Answer 46

Anarchist and socialist put forward the idea that private ownership of land should be replaced by a collective ownership - he helped to introduce marxism into Russia by translating ‘The communist manifesto” into Russia in 1869

Question 47

Beliefs of revolutionary groyps

Answer 47

Believed they can overturn the Tsar exclusively through violent actions - ‘Catechism of a revolutionary’ written by Bakinin and Nechaev, exhorted opponents of autocracy to be merciless in their pursuit of revolution

Question 48

What was the Tchaikovsky Circle

Answer 48

Set up in 1868-69 in St Petersburg - primarily a literary society that organised the printing, publishing and distribution of scientific and revolutionary literature.
In 1872 the Tchaikovsky circle began organising workers with the intention of sending them to work among the peasants in the country side