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GCSEs > Geography (paper 1) đź“Ť > Flashcards

Geography (paper 1) đź“Ť Flashcards

1
Q

[Ecosystems]
Decomposers meaning

A

Organisms that break down organic matter (eg bacteria)

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2
Q

Nutrient cycling

A

When nutrients are passed down from one component of an ecosystem to another

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3
Q

Where is Epping Forest located?

A

North East of London

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4
Q

Characteristics of Epping Forest

A

Deciduous forest that consists of trees 100s of years old: Its leaves fall in the winter conserve energy and its leaves expand its surface area in summer to absorb more sunlight

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5
Q

Biomass

A

Energy stored in living things

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6
Q

Weathering

A

When rocks are broken down and its nutrients enter the soil

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7
Q

Surface runoff

A

When water flows on the surface washing away nutrients

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8
Q

Leaching

A

When nutrients are washed out of the soil by the rain

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9
Q

How do nutrients enter the soil?

A

Weathering and the decomposition of leaves (from leaf litter)

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10
Q

How do nutrients get stored as biomass?

A

When plants absorb nutrients from the soil using its roots

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11
Q

How do nutrients get stored in leaf litter?

A

Through precipitation and when leaves drop in autumn (from biomass)

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12
Q

What are 2 ways nutrients can leave an ecosystem?

A

Surface runoff and leaching

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13
Q

How are nutrients cycled around Epping Forest?

A

Nutrients enter the soil and then gets stored in biomass and then in leaf litter in a recurring process

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14
Q

Abiotic component meaning

A

non - living things

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15
Q

Examples of abiotic components

A

• Water • The Sun • Rocks • Soil • Air

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16
Q

Functions of abiotic components

A

• Water - helps plants to photosynthesise • Sun - provides light for growth • Rocks - provides habitats • Soil - provides nutrients • Air - helps organisms to respire

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17
Q

Endemic species meaning

A

Plants & organisms that are only found in a certain biome

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18
Q

[Tropical rainforests]
Reason for the distribution of tropical rainforests

A

• The sun is directly overhead all year therefore it’s rays are more concentrated here
• So the climate is hot and wet which provides the perfect conditions for plant growth

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19
Q

Describe the process of convectional rainfall

A

Warm air rises > the air cools > water vapour condenses > clouds and rain are formed

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20
Q

Why are hot deserts found either side of tropical rainforests?

A

Cool, dry air disperses from rainforests and starts to descend on deserts

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21
Q

Why are there high levels of biodiversity in tropical rainforests?

A

Hot and wet conditions make it optimal for plant growth

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22
Q

Why does soil tend to be infertile in tropical rainforests?

A

Nutrients in the ground are quickly taken up by the roots of many plants • Leaching also occurs

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23
Q

Characteristics of the emergent layer

A

•Trees with wide, strong buttress roots (for stability in windy conditions) • Tallest trees • Its seeds are winged to be carried by the wind

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24
Q

Characteristics of the canopy layer

A

• Home to 90% of organisms in tropical rainforests • Blocks out sunlight from layers below • Epiphytes found here (plants that grow on trees) • between 15 and 30 metres high

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25
Q

Characteristics of the under canopy layer

A

• Receives little sunlight as canopy blocks it out • Lianas (vines) climb up trees to get pollinated by insects and reproduce

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26
Q

Characteristics of the ground / shrub layer

A

• Humid and dark • Leaf litter is quickly decomposed by the humidity • soil is infertile • 2% of sunlight reaches this layer

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27
Q

Adaptations of drip tip leaves

A

Have a pointed tip to allow water to slide down the leaf in order to:
• help the water be absorbed by the roots
• prevent the leaves from breaking

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28
Q

Adaptations of epiphytes

A

• Its roots grow into the air to absorb the air’s moisture and nutrients

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29
Q

Adaptations of the howler monkey

A

• Prehensile tail supports its grip as it swings • Long limbs to swing rapidly when escaping predators

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30
Q

Adaptations of the tree frog

A

• Long tongue to catch prey • Toe pads made of mucus to stick to trees and plants

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31
Q

Adaptations of the three toed sloth

A

• Very slow moving to conserve energy • Moss grows on its fur to help the sloth camouflage to avoid being detected by predators

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32
Q

Biome meaning

A

A large ecological area

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33
Q

What’s a tropical rainforest?

A

Rainforests at the equator with a warm climate and high levels of precipitation

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34
Q

Biodiversity meaning

A

A measure of how many different species live in an ecosystem

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35
Q

Why is the climate of a tropical rainforest valuable globally?

A

• It supports the growth of a large number of trees (which grow food resources eg cocoa, sugar and banana)

• They act as a carbon sink (absorbs and stores co2 which reduces global warming)

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36
Q

Why is medicine processed from tropical rainforests valuable for social sustainability?

A

Some plants in rainforests (such as the rosy periwinkle) contain anti cancer properties used for cancer fighting drugs • This improves life expectancy

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37
Q

Why is water from tropical rainforests valuable?

A

20% of the Earth’s fresh water is found in the Amazon Basin

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38
Q

Deforestation meaning

A

When trees are cut down at a large scale

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39
Q

Loss of rainforest in countries around the world

A

Brazil has lost 89000 square miles in 17 years • Indonesia has lost 35000

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40
Q

Why is deforestation happening at a faster rate in some countries compared to others ?

A

• Space provision for urbanisation during population growth • illegal logging • Laws protecting rainforests • Economy might depend on it for income

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41
Q

How has the rate of deforestation in the Amazon changed?

A

In 2004 it was high due to commercial farming (cattle) for TNCs like Mac D • Lowest in 2012 as Brazil invests in reducing climate change and increasing tourism • Increases in 2020 as new president (Jair Bolsonaro) encourages agriculture and mining activities

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42
Q

Causes of deforestation in the Amazon

A

• Commercial farming (to make money) (accounts for 80% of deforestation)
• Subsistence farming (for survival) • Logging
• Hydroelectric-power
• Mining
• Urbanisation

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43
Q

Process of how deforestation affects the soil in a rainforest

A

Trees are cut down -> Soil is exposed to the rain -> Nutrients are leached from the soil -> Plants are unable to regrow -> Land becomes unusable

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44
Q

Negative impacts of deforestation in the Amazon

A

• Only 240 tribes left (the indigenous losing their homes)
• Fewer trees to absorb co2
• Soil is exposed to heavy rain (leaching can occur)
• 50,000 species are becoming extinct every year
• Local climate gets drier (fewer trees to release water into the air)
• Conflict arises between loggers and the indigenous

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45
Q

What’s the biggest flow of nutrients out of the rainforest and why?

A

• Leaching • High levels of precipitation due to convectional rainfall

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46
Q

Sustainable rainforest management strategies

A

• Selective logging • Ecotourism • Conservation and education • Debt reduction • International agreements

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47
Q

What is selective logging and how sustainable is it?

A

• Only felling (cutting down) trees when they are fully grown and letting younger ones mature • Not environmentally sustainable as it can take around 50 years for trees to regrow

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48
Q

What is conservation and education and how sustainable is it?

A

• The preservation of rainforests through national parks or reserves which allows for scientific research • The environment is left untouched and isn’t negatively impacted.

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49
Q

What is ecotourism and how sustainable is it?

A

• Tourism that allows people to experience the natural environment without damaging it • It’s socially sustainable as local people are employed and environmentally sustainable

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50
Q

What are international agreements and how sustainable are they?

A

•Agreements between countries made to protect the rainforest • Not economically sustainable as the trading of valuable hardwood is restricted

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51
Q

What is a debt for nature swap and how sustainable is it?

A

• Where HICs convert LICs’ debt into a fund to protect tropical rainforests • Environmentally and economically sustainable (LICs can focus on development rather than paying debt)

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52
Q

What’s another way of saying an environment that’s difficult to survive in?

A

Hostile environment

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53
Q

Stakeholder meaning

A

Someone who has an interest in an issue

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54
Q

Biosphere reserve

A

When the central areas of a forest are protected but forms of activity are allowed on the outer zones

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55
Q

[Hot deserts]
Physical characteristics of a hot desert

A

• Hot and arid climate
• Low levels of precipitation
• Water is often found deep underground in aquifers
• Plants (Cacti) have deep tap roots to absorb water underground
• Animals are adapted to survive without food/water for a long time
• High levels of solar insolation

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56
Q

How is the soil eroded in hot deserts?

A

High wind speeds that occur during sandstorms

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57
Q

What do camels store in their humps to survive in a desert?

A

Fat

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58
Q

Where is the Western Desert located?

A

Nevada, Texas

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59
Q

How are cacti adapted to a hot desert environment?

A

• Large spikes to deter consumers from wanting to eat it
• Have spikes instead of leaves to reduces surface area and water loss (because water quickly evaporates in the hot climate)
• Stores water in stem to survive long periods without rainfall (as precipitation levels are very low in deserts)

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60
Q

How are bactrian camels adapted to survive in a hot desert environment?

A

• Humps store fat to survive long periods without food or water (because vegetation is difficult to find in an arid climate)

• Two rows of eyelashes to prevent sand from blowing into its eyes

• Thick fur all over body to reduce heat loss at night (as the temperature plummets due to a lack of clouds for humidity)

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61
Q

Characteristics of desert soil

A

Unconsolidated (-loose because there’s only a few trees to bind the soil together) and fertile (because no leaching occurs)

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62
Q

What conditions are required for a desert environment?

A

• High pressure • Cool air sinking

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63
Q

Irrigation meaning

A

Extracting water from aquifers for agriculture

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64
Q

Opportunities for developing hot deserts

A

• Mineral extraction
• Agriculture
• Energy
• Tourism

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65
Q

Challenges associated with developing hot deserts

A

• Extreme temperatures • Limited water supply • Inaccessibility

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66
Q

How is mineral extraction able to take place in the Western Desert?

A

• It’s rich in minerals like copper, uranium, zinc • Minerals are close to the surface of the ground therefore open cast mining can take place

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67
Q

How is agriculture able to take place in the Western Desert?

A

• High temperatures and water provided by irrigation makes it ideal for farming

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68
Q

Sources of irrigation in the Western Desert

A

• Water stored in aquifers can be brought to the surface by digging a well • Canals are used for large scale agriculture

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69
Q

How is tourism able to take place in the Western Desert?

A

• Many tourist attractions such as the Grand Canyon (9 million visitors a year), Lake Mead and Lake Powell (2 million) • Las Vegas attracts 37 million • Tourism is the Western Desert’s most important source of income

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70
Q

How is energy able to be supplied in the Western Desert?

A

• Sonoran Solar Project in Arizona is a new solar power plant project that will help power 100,000 homes • Hoover Dam generates hydroelectricity from Lake Mead • Fossil fuels like oil is drilled for in Arizona (25 active oil production sites also located on land owned by the Navajo people)

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71
Q

How do extreme temperatures present a challenge for development in the Western Desert?

A

• Infrastructure requires to be resistant to heat • Difficult for Native Americans to settle • Temperatures reach as high as 50C

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72
Q

How does inaccessibility present a challenge for development in the Western Desert?

A

A lack of roads make it difficult to transport resources and tourists to enter

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73
Q

How does a limited water supply present a challenge for development in the Western Desert?

A

• Makes it difficult for agriculture to take place without access to aquifers • Can lead to droughts which will inflict job losses in farming

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74
Q

Meaning of solar insolation

A

The sun’s rays are easily able to reach the ground as there’s no clouds

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75
Q

Types of hardwood trees in tropical rainforests

A

Timber trees: Teak and mahogany

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76
Q

How does deforestation affect water supplies?

A

Chemicals like mercury used in mining can poison the ecosystem and pollute the water

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77
Q

Positive impacts of deforestation in the Amazon

A

• Minerals such as gold, copper and tin from mining can be exported to make money
• Roads being built improves trade and transport (eg Trans-amazon highway)
• Hardwood is a valuable resource to export
• Almost a 1/4 of Brazil’s GDP comes from activities in the Amazon’s deforested areas

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78
Q

How does the Amazon have high levels of biodiversity?

A

It contains half of all the plants and animals in the world

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79
Q

Desertification meaning

A

When land turns into a desert because it dries out and loses its nutrients

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80
Q

Causes of desertification

A

• Population growth • Deforestation • Soil erosion • Fuelwood • Overgrazing • Over - cultivation • Drought • Climate change

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81
Q

How does overgrazing contribute to desertification?

A

The cows trample on the soil compressing the nutrients • When it rains, water cannot infiltrate the soil • Therefore water flows on the surface (surface runoff) and nutrients are leached from it

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82
Q

Overgrazing definition

A

When farmers have large herds of cattle

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83
Q

How does over-cultivation contribute to desertification?

A

Having a large number of crops would mean that more nutrients are absorbed from the soil which degrades it and makes it infertile

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84
Q

How does soil erosion contribute to desertification?

A

• Without roots binding the soil together, the soil is easily eroded by the wind (as its unconsolidated) • The soil is also exposed to heavy rainfall which means that leaching occurs

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85
Q

Fuelwood meaning

A

Burning wood for fuel eg cooking

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86
Q

How does fuelwood and climate change contribute to desertification?

A

• When wood is burned, greenhouse gases are released • This increases the temperature of the atmosphere • Causing hot areas to become even hotter and drier

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87
Q

What are the solutions to prevent desertification in the Sahel?

A

Zai and drip irrigation • Bunds • Education (cattle farming) • Afforestation • Intermediate technology • Renewable energy

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88
Q

What is zai and drip irrigation and how does it prevent the soil from degrading?

A

• They are methods for irrigating crops to maximise the moisture the soil can keep • Less water is wasted as water is only provided for the plant • This helps the soil keep its water and nutrients • It’s economically and environmentally sustainable but it can only be achieved on a small scale

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89
Q

What are bunds and how does it prevent the soil from being degraded?

A

• They are small walls built out of rocks to prevent surface runoff on slopes • It ensures the water infiltrates the soil to provide nutrients • Its a cheap solution but can’t happen on a large scale

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90
Q

What is afforestation and how does it prevent the soil from degrading?

A

It’s when trees are planted to restore degraded land • Eg Great Green Wall in the Sahel (Continuous wall of trees from east to west Africa) • The soil becomes consolidated as the root of plants bind it together • It reduces soil erosion but it can take a long time for trees to grow

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91
Q

How does intermediate technology prevent the soil from being degraded?

A

Stoves are provided for people in LICs instead of burning wood • Less trees are cut down (so less soil is exposed to rain for leaching) • Less greenhouse gases are produced (less fuelwood burned) • Reduces climate change and the loss of nutrients • Environmentally and socially sustainable (people can cook more efficiently)

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92
Q

[River landscapes]
Abrasion meaning

A

When large rocks hit and scrape against the river bed and banks

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93
Q

Deposition meaning

A

When a river drops the material it’s carrying because it loses energy

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94
Q

Lateral erosion meaning

A

When the river has lots of energy to erode the sides making the river wider

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95
Q

Long profile meaning

A

A cross sectional view of a river from source to estuary

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96
Q

What is the name for the sides of a river?

A

The river bank

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97
Q

What is the name for the bottom of a river?

A

The river bed

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98
Q

Vertical erosion meaning

A

When the river cuts down into the landscape

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99
Q

What is a V-shaped valley?

A

A steep sided valley created by vertical erosion near the source of a river

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100
Q

Flood plain meaning

A

Low lying land either side of a river which regularly floods

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101
Q

Drainage basin meaning

A

The area that feeds the river

102
Q

Tributary meaning

A

A small river that feeds the main one

103
Q

Estuary meaning

A

When the river flows into the sea

104
Q

Watershed meaning

A

The line where 2 drainage basins meet

105
Q

Source meaning

A

Starting point of a river

106
Q

Features of a river at its source

A

• Always in hills/mountains • Flows through a V-shaped valley (vertical erosion) • Low velocity • Shallow and narrow channel • Steep gradient

107
Q

Features of a river at the estuary

A

• At sea level • Flat gradient • High velocity/discharge • Channel is wide and deep

108
Q

Interlocking spurs meaning

A

When the river flows in a zigzag formation as it doesn’t have enough energy to erode hard rock

109
Q

Discharge meaning

A

Amount of water in a river channel

110
Q

Hydraulic action

A

When the flowing water is forced into cracks in the river bed/banks wearing them away

111
Q

Attrition

A

When rocks carried by the river hit against each other chipping bits off so they become smaller rounder and smoother

112
Q

Solution (erosion)

A

When acids in the water dissolve the face of the cliff (eg rocks like chalk and limestone)

113
Q

Traction

A

When large heavy rocks are rolled along the river bed during a high discharge as there’s more energy

114
Q

Saltation

A

When medium sized rocks bounce along the river bed

115
Q

Suspension

A

When small light particles are lifted from the river bed and carried by the water (due to high discharge and velocity)

116
Q

Solution (transportation)

A

When rock particles are carried as dissolved material

117
Q

Where does the River Tees start

A

Cross Fell (Pennines) in North East England

118
Q

Name of waterfall at River Tees

A

High Force

119
Q

Estuary of River Tees

A

Middlesbrough where it meets the North Sea

120
Q

4 erosion processes

A

• Hydraulic action • Abrasion • Attrition • Solution

121
Q

4 transport processes

A

• Traction • Saltation • Suspension • Solution

122
Q

Slip off slope characteristics

A

• A section of the river bank with a gentle gradient due to deposition
• Happens as the velocity of the river is low therefore it loses energy

123
Q

Riffles and pools characteristics

A

• Deep and shallow areas of the river channel
• Formed by different sized deposited rocks on the river bed
• This causes the water to start spinning in a corkscrew motion (helicoidal flow)

124
Q

River cliff characteristics

A

• Section of the river bank with a steep gradient due to lateral erosion
• This happens due to a high velocity (Thalweg)

125
Q

How does a waterfall form?

A

• Hard resistant rock meets softer rock
• Water erodes the softer rock (abrasion and hydraulic action)
• Soft rock is undercut
• Hard rock becomes unsupported and collapses due to gravity
• Waterfall retreats leaving a gorge behind

126
Q

Plunge pool

A

Area at the base of a waterfall that is eroded by abrasion and hydraulic action

127
Q

How do floodplains form?

A

• Alluvium flows onto the floodplain as the river floods • This causes friction and the sediment to be deposited in layers • Therefore floodplains have a flat gradient

128
Q

Alluvium

A

Sediment dropped on the floodplain

129
Q

What is a levee?

A

Raised ridge of sediment either side of a river channel that are deposited when a river floods

130
Q

How does a levee form?

A

• When a river floods friction with the floodplain leads to a rapid decrease in the velocity of the river and therefore its capacity to transport material

• Larger material is deposited closest to the river bank (as they need more energy for transport). This often leads to large, raised mounds being formed.

• Smaller material is deposited further away and leads to the formation of gently sloping sides of the levees.

131
Q

Gorge meaning

A

A narrow valley with steep walls left behind as the waterfall retreats

132
Q

What is a cross profile?

A

A slice taken across a river showing how wide and deep it is

133
Q

What’s a meander?

A

A bend in the river

134
Q

What’s an ox-bow lake?

A

A curved lake left behind when a meander becomes cut off from the main river channel

135
Q

Why is the upper course of a river narrow?

A

A lot of friction takes place

136
Q

Saturated meaning

A

When the ground cannot hold anymore water

137
Q

Geology meaning

A

The type of rock a place is built on

138
Q

Permeable meaning

A

Surfaces that allow water to pass through easily

139
Q

Characteristics of Boscastle’s location

A

• South West of England
• North coast of the county Cornwall
• Confluence of the River Jordan and Valency

140
Q

How does Boscastle’s physical factors affect flood risk?

A

• The gradient of the valley is steep
• This would encourage a high velocity due to gravity

• The geology beneath Boscastle is impermeable slate
• Therefore rainwater is unable to infiltrate

• Boscastle is at the confluence of two rivers
• Therefore the discharge would be higher

• Prolonged heavy precipitation from a storm produced over 60mm of rainfall
• The ground becomes saturated with water and the surface run off increases

141
Q

How does Boscastle’s human factors affect flood risk?

A

• A bridge was built over the river
• Therefore debris carried by the flood got trapped preventing water flow

• Trees above the valley were deforested
• Therefore rainwater could not be intercepted and the discharge increases

• Boscastle was built on the floodplain of a confluence
• Therefore impermeable concrete surfaces increased surface runoff & water flowing into river

142
Q

Possible economic impacts of river flooding

A

• Large repair costs as property and businesses get damaged
• Therefore people lose their source of income and support becomes required from insurance companies

• Tourists avoid visiting the area
• The tourism industry declines and people become unemployed so the rate decreases

143
Q

Possible social impacts of river flooding

A

• Floods can contaminate water sources
• This increases the risk of waterborne diseases and decreases the life expectancy

• People become stranded on top of homes and buildings
• Therefore they are unable to escape the danger so helicopter rescues were relied upon

144
Q

Possible environmental impacts of river flooding

A

• Trees get uprooted
• Therefore less leaves would be available to intercept the water in future and more precipitation reaches the ground

• The soil can become eroded
• Therefore the soil loses nutrients and becomes infertile so plants are unable to be grown

145
Q

Sinuous meaning

A

Having many curves and bends

146
Q

Soft engineering and its features

A

Working with nature to prevent flooding / coastal erosion

• Less expensive
• Is sustainable
• Less effective (therefore people can lose homes)

147
Q

Hard engineering and its features

A

Working against nature using man-made materials to prevent river flooding

• Very expensive
• Very effective
• Durable
• Resistant to weathering
• Impermeable

148
Q

Soft engineering flood management strategies

A

• Floodplain zoning
• Flood warnings
• Afforestation
• River restoration

149
Q

How are flood warnings used to manage floods?

A

Involves alerting people to the risk of flooding (by The Environment Agency)

Pros:
• It gives people time to reinforce buildings which
• Reduces the impact of flooding

Cons:
• Doesn’t stop flooding
• Not all people will be aware

150
Q

How is flood plain zoning used to manage floods?

A

It involves putting building restrictions on floodplains at risk of flooding

Pros:
• Businesses and houses aren’t damaged as they aren’t built on the floodplain
• Impermeable surfaces aren’t built on the floodplain

Cons:
• Difficult to implement on already developed floodplains
• Urbanisation becomes restricted

151
Q

How is afforestation used to manage floods?

A

This involves planting trees to increase interception and lag time

Pros:
• Discharge in the river reduces
• Risk of soil erosion is reduced

Cons:
• Restricts what the land can be used for

152
Q

How is river restoration used to manage floods?

A

It involves returning a river to its natural state (eg removing river straightening)

Pros:
• Cheap solution
• Discharge in the river reduces

Cons:
• Flood risks can increase if nothing else is done

153
Q

Hard engineering flood management strategies

A

• Dams and reservoirs
• River straightening
• Embankments
• Flood relief channels

154
Q

How are dams and reservoirs used to manage floods?

A

Concrete barriers are built across the river to control water flow

Pros:
• The water flowing through the dam can be used for hydroelectricity
• Reservoirs store a large volume of water reducing the risk of floods

Cons:
• Large areas of land are flooded
• Expensive to build

155
Q

How are embankments used to manage floods?

A

The banks of a river are built up allowing a higher discharge before overflowing

Pros:
• More sustainable
• Looks more natural

Cons:
• Expensive to install

156
Q

How is river straightening used to manage floods?

A

It involves cutting through meanders to create a straight channel

Pros:
• speeds up the flow of water so the risk of flooding decreases
• Water is taken out more quickly as the course is shortened

Cons:
• Increases flood risk downstream
• River banks are eroded faster

157
Q

How are flood relief channels used to manage floods?

A

Man-made channel created to divert water around urban areas

Pros:
• River discharge decreases

Cons:
• Hard to find land to build relief channels
• Can be expensive

158
Q

Soft engineering strategies used to manage the flash flood in Boscastle

A

• The river channel was widened and deepened
• This allowing a higher discharge

• Dead trees were removed to prevent being swept away in future
• This prevents debris blocking water flow

• The car park was rebuilt using permeable material (gravel)
• This allows water to infiltrate the ground

• Land owners were encouraged to maintain vegetation and plant new trees
• Therefore more water is intercepted

159
Q

Hard engineering strategies used to manage the flash flood in Boscastle

A

• Low bridges were replaced with higher wider bridges
• This prevents debris from blocking water flow

• The car park was raised to higher ground
• So a higher discharge is required to affect them

160
Q

Social impacts of Boscastle’s flood management scheme

A

• The residents’ lives were disrupted by rebuilding projects (-)
• New defences made Boscastle a safe place to live (+)
• Many residents do not like the new bridge (-)

161
Q

Economic impacts of Boscastle’s flood management scheme

A

• Less risk of expensive damage to property/businesses (+)
• The scheme cost £10 million which is very expensive (-)
• Tourists have returned to Boscastle improving the local economy (+)

162
Q

Environmental impacts of Boscastle’s flood management scheme

A

• Vegetation and river habitats are managed better which improves the biodiversity (+)
• Land owners planting more trees has provided a habitat for wildlife (+)
• The embankment isn’t attractive to look at (-)

163
Q

What is a flood hydrograph?

A

Graph that shows how a river responds to a period of rainfall

[more on KU]

164
Q

Peak discharge (hydrograph)

A

The point on a hydrograph where the river channel has the most water in it

165
Q

Rising limb (hydrograph)

A

Shows the increasing flood water in the river

166
Q

Recession limb (hydrograph)

A

Shows the decreasing flood water in the river

167
Q

Lag time (hydrograph)

A

Time difference between the peak rainfall and the peak discharge

168
Q

Base flow (hydrograph)

A

The normal amount of discharge you would expect in a river

169
Q

Key features of a hydrograph

A

• Precipitation
• Time since rainfall

• Discharge
• Peak discharge
• Peak rainfall
• Rising limb
• Recession limb
• Lag time
• Base flow

170
Q

[Coasts]
What are waves caused by?

A

Friction between the wind and the water

171
Q

What is the top of a wave called?

A

Crest

172
Q

What is the fetch of a wave?

A

The distance a wave travels

173
Q

Characteristics of constructive waves

A

• They tend to build the beach
• They create wide flat beaches with a gentle slope
• They have a short height
• There’s a long wavelength
• Swash is stronger than backwash so deposition occurs
• Occur when there’s a long fetch

174
Q

Characteristics of destructive waves

A

• Backwash is stronger than the swash therefore sediment is removed
• There’s a short wavelength
• They create narrow beaches with a steep slope
• They’re tall in height
• They tend to erode the coast

175
Q

What is longshore drift?

A

Where sediment is transported along the coastline by the swash and backwash

176
Q

How does a spit form? (5)

A

• A spit is formed by the movement of sediment carried by longshore drift
• The prevailing wind pushes constructive waves up the beach at an angle as the swash
• Then the backwash comes back down the beach at a ninety degree angle due to gravity

• This process continues down the entire beach and then extends out the headland as a spit

• If the prevailing wind changes direction, the direction of longshore drift also changes which causes the spit to recede and form a hook

• A salt marsh also tends to form as deposition takes place and the waves slow down losing its energy

• The spit acts as a shelter from the oncoming waves
• Therefore, plants grow here and colonise the area.

177
Q

Discordant coastline definition

A

When bands are at a right angle to the coastline (therefore headlands and bays form)

178
Q

Concordant coastline definition

A

When bands of rock are parallel go the coastline (therefore it erodes at the same speed)

179
Q

Differential erosion definition

A

When one type of rock erodes faster than another

180
Q

How does a bar form?

A

• A spit extends out to sea due to sediment being carried by long shore drift
• It then joins 2 headlands together
• A freshwater lake (lagoon) forms behind it as its sheltered from sea waves

181
Q

How does a tombolo form?

A

When a spit extends out to sea due to longshore drift and joins onto an island

182
Q

Sand dunes are formed when

A

The wind deposits sediment

183
Q

Sequence of the formation of a stump due to coastal erosion

A

• Crack
• Cave
• Arch
• Stack
• Stump

184
Q

Soft engineering strategies that protect the coastline

A

• Beach replenishment
• Dune regeneration
• Dune fencing
• Managed retreat

185
Q

Hard engineering strategies that protect the coastline

A

• Gabion cages
• Sea wall
• Rock armour (rip rap)
• Groynes

186
Q

How do gabion cages protect the coastline?

A

They’re wire cages filled with rocks that can be built up to support a cliff or act as a buffer against the sea

187
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of gabion cages

A

Advantages:
• Cheap to produce
• Improves drainage of the cliff
• Absorbs energy from destructive waves

Disadvantages:
• Unattractive to look at
• Cages only last 5 - 10 years before rusting

188
Q

How does a sea wall protect the coastline?

A

• The concrete rock barriers act against the sea at the foot of a cliff
• Has a curved face to deflect the waves’ energy back into the sea and divert energy away from land

189
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of a sea wall

A

Advantages:
• Effective and often has a walkway to walk along

Disadvantages:
• Looks unnatural
• Expensive to maintain

190
Q

How does rock armour protect the coastline?

A

• Pieces of large boulders are dumped at the foot of a cliff
• It slows down the velocity of the waves as it absorbs and dissipates (spreads) the energy away from the land
• Also deflects the waves’ energy in different directions

191
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of rock armour

A

Advantages:
• Cheap and easy to maintain
• Often used for fishing

Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive to transport the rocks
• Doesn’t fit with local geology

192
Q

How do groynes protect the coastline?

A

Timber/rock/concrete structure is built out to sea perpendicular to the coast which helps trap sediment being moved by longshore drift and build up the beach

193
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of groynes

A

Advantages:
• Creates a wider beach which can attract tourists
• Useful for the fishing industry
• Acts as a buffer to sea

Disadvantages:
• Interrupts longshore drift which starves beaches further along the coast
• Leads to faster erosion

194
Q

How does beach replenishment protect the coastline?

A

It involves adding sand to an existing beach to make it higher and wider

195
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of beach replenishment

A

Advantages:
• Cheap
• Blends in with the beach
• Increases potential for tourism

Disadvantages:
• Needs constant maintenance

196
Q

How does dune regeneration protect the coastline?

A

• Involves restoring or creating sand dunes to act as a barrier against the sea
• Marram grass can be planted to stabilise the dunes

197
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of dune regeneration

A

Advantages:
• Maintains a natural environment
• Supports biodiversity
• Absorbs wave energy

Disadvantages:
• Takes time to plant
• Laws restricting their access isn’t always followed

198
Q

How does dune fencing protect the coastline?

A

Fences are put up to encourage new dune formation

199
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of dune fencing

A

Advantages:
• Has minimal impact on nature
• Controls public access to protect ecosystems

Disadvantages:
• Not attractive to look at
• Regular maintenance needed

200
Q

What is managed retreat?

A

• A deliberate policy allowing the sea to flood low value land
• It’s more sustainable than coastal defences

201
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of managed retreat

A

Advantages:
• Costs nothing
• Creates a natural salt marsh forming a natural buffer to the sea
• Forms a valuable wildlife habitat

Disadvantages:
• Coastline is eroded
• Course of erosion may also reach valuable land

202
Q

Mass movement definition

A

The downward movement or sliding of material under the influence of gravity

203
Q

Scree definition

A

Piles of rock fragments that have broken off from a cliff

204
Q

Discrete data definition

A

Data that can be grouped into categories

205
Q

Continuous data definition

A

Data that is in a sequence

206
Q

How does a wave cut platform form?

A

• Erosion happens at the base of a cliff
forming a wave-cut notch

• Overtime the notch is enlarged by abrasion and hydraulic power [explain]

• The notch makes the cliff unstable and it collapses overtime due to gravity

• The process repeats and cliff retreats inland

• As the cliff retreats, a sloped wave cut platform is left behind at the base of the cliff due to depositon

207
Q

What are the 3 types of weathering?

A

• Biological
• Chemical
• Mechanical

208
Q

Definition and example of biological weathering

A

Definition
• Where plants and animals cause rocks to be broken up

Examples
• When plant roots grow in cracks in the rock causing it to break apart
• Animals like rabbits also burrow into the rock

209
Q

Definition and example of chemical weathering

A

Definition
• Where rocks are eaten away as a result of a chemical reaction with rainwater

Example
• Rain absorbs co2 from the atmosphere and becomes acidic
• It then dissolves soft rock on cliff faces eg chalk
• This is known as carbonation

210
Q

Definition and example of mechanical weathering

A

Definition
• Where rocks are broken up by physical processes (usually temperature changes)

Example
• Freeze thaw weathering

211
Q

What is freeze thaw weathering?

A

• The process begins with water collecting in the crack of a rock

• At night, the water freezes due to a fall in temperature and the water expands making the crack wider

• During the day, the ice thaws as the temperature rises and therefore the water contracts going deeper into cracks

• Repeated expansion & contraction over time makes the rock crack further until it splits

212
Q

What are the 2 types of mass movement?

A

• Sliding
• Slumping

213
Q

Sliding characteristics

A

• Involves a straight slide plane
• Rocks fall as blocks in a straight line
• Gravity makes the rocks fall
• Caused by the 3 types of weathering
• The cliff retreats

214
Q

Slumping characteristics

A

• Involves a curved slip plane
• Rocks are rotated backwards
• Gravity causes rocks to fall
• Rocks end up becoming small particles
• Caused by the 3 types of weathering
• Causes the cliff to retreat

215
Q

How do caves, arches, stacks and stumps form? (6)

A

• The headland is made of hard resistant rock that protrudes into the sea

• Destructive waves attack the headland
• Their strong backwash forces air and water into the cracks in the rock (hydraulic action) breaking the rocks away

• The crack increases in size from continued hydraulic action and abrasion forming a cave [explain]

• The destructive waves continue to erode the rock and eventually break through the back of the cave forming an arch

• The top of the arch eventually collapses due to gravity and weathering on top which leaves a tall stack behind [explain example]

• The stack is eroded further at the base by destructive waves and eventually collapses to leave a stump

216
Q

[Natural hazards]
What is a natural hazard?

A

An event caused by physical process that has a negative impact on people

217
Q

What are the 3 types of natural hazards?

A

• Atmospheric hazards
• Geological hazards
• Hydrological hazards

218
Q

What is an atmospheric hazard and some examples?

A

• Hazards driven by processes in the Earth’s atmosphere

• Eg Tornadoes
• Tropical storms
• Wildfires

219
Q

What is a geological hazard and some examples?

A

• Hazards driven by processes happening inside the Earth

• Eg Earthquakes
• Volcanic eruptions
• Tsunamis

220
Q

What is a hydrological hazard and some examples?

A

• Hazards driven by water bodies

• Eg Flooding
• Tsunami

221
Q

Hazard risk meaning

A

The probability of being affected by a natural hazard event

222
Q

What factors affect hazard risk in Japan?

A

• A high population density means more people are vulnerable
• This increases hazard risk

• Japans geographical location is where 3 tectonic plates meet therefore earthquakes are likely to occur
• Also Japan is prone to high intensity tropical storms
• This increases hazard risk

• Climate change has meant that temperatures in Japan are above average which creates conditions for hazards like drought

• Japan is a HIC which means that the country can afford to build expensive infrastructure to protect its population

223
Q

How does Japan’s infrastructure make it more resistant to natural hazards?

A

• Earthquake resistant buildings are constructed with flexible materials allowing them to sway and absorb seismic waves
• Rubber shock absorbers underground also absorb seismic waves

• Tsunami walls have been built in coastal areas for protection against the strong waves

224
Q

What are tsunamis caused by?

A

Earthquakes under the sea displacing water onto the land

225
Q

Why did people live in areas with a high hazard risk?

A

• Poverty means that people have no choice because they can’t afford to live elsewhere eg LIC Haiti
• Some countries are well prepared and protected for naturals hazards eg Japan
• Steam from below the Earth’s crust in volcanic areas (as water in the lithosphere is heated) is used for geothermal energy eg New Zealand
• Volcanoes tend to come with fertile soil as minerals are brought up to the surface from underground eg Italy
• Hazardous landscapes can be attractive to visitors and increase tourism

226
Q

What is a drought?

A

When a place experiences less rainfall than usual for an extended period of time

227
Q

Volcanic eruptions are most prevalent..

A

Around the outside of the Pacific Ocean

228
Q

What is geothermal energy?

A

Energy generated by stem being heated up within the Earth’s crust

229
Q

What are the 4 layers of the Earth?

A

• Crust
• Mantle
• Outer Core
• Inner Core

230
Q

Characteristics of the crust

A

• Very thin layer
• Made of solid rock

231
Q

Characteristics of the mantle

A

• Made of semi molten rock
• Around 3000°C hot
• Thickest layer
• Where convection currents occur

232
Q

Characteristics of the outer core

A

• Made of liquid iron
• 4500°C hot

233
Q

Characteristics of the inner core

A

• Made of iron and nickel
• Hottest layer (5500°C)

234
Q

Epicentre definition

A

Point on Earth’s surface above the focus where the earthquake is felt most strongly

235
Q

Focus definition

A

The point within the crust where the earthquake starts

236
Q

Fault definition

A

A fracture in the rock of the Earth’s crust

237
Q

Seismic waves definition

A

Waves that are released during an earthquake

238
Q

Tectonic plate definition

A

Sections of the Earth’s crust that come into contact with each other at a plate margin

239
Q

In what direction do the plates move in a conservative plate margin?

A

➡️
⬅️

240
Q

What happens at a conservative plate margin?

A

• Plates slide past each other and lock together
• This causes friction making pressure build up
• They suddenly snap loose which causes vibrations in the earth’s crust known as seismic waves
• Earthquakes occur on the surface

241
Q

What kind of plate margins do earthquakes occur and why?

A

• Conservative plate margins
• Constructive plate margins
• Collision plate margins
• Destructive plate margins

Because friction is built up at each plate margin

242
Q

What type of plate margin best shows how an earthquake happens?

A

Conservative plate margins

243
Q

In what direction do the plates move in a constructive plate margin?

A

⬅️ ➡️

244
Q

What happens at a constructive plate margin?

A

• Convection currents in the mantle cause the 2 plates to move apart allowing magma to rise through the gap
• The magma then cools to form new land (mountains or a volcano)
• Volcanic eruptions occur here where lava and gas are forced up through the crust due to the pressure and rise through the vent

245
Q

What direction do the plates move in a collision plate margin?

A

➡️ ⬅️

246
Q

What happens at a collision plate margin?

A

• The same type of plate move towards each other
• Since both plates are the same density, both are forced upwards to form fold mountains
• As the plates push into each other, friction builds up causing an earthquake

247
Q

In what direction do the plates move in a destructive plate margin?

A

➡️ ⬅️

248
Q

What happens at a destructive plate margin?

A

• A continental and oceanic plate move towards each other
• Since the oceanic plate is more dense it gets subducted
• As it sinks, it melts and makes magma in the subduction zone
• Therefore, heat & pressure build up under the crust
• Eventually, the hot magma is forced up through the cracks to form a volcanic eruption

249
Q

Ecosystem meaning

A

A natural system that includes all biotic and abiotic parts sharing an environment

250
Q

How does a coastline of headlands and bays form and change over time?

A

• They’re formed by a discordant coastline made of bands of hard and soft rock perpendicular to the sea

• As the waves erode the coastline, the softer less resistant rock will be eroded quicker. This results in the areas of softer rock to retreat, forming bays
• The hard rock is eroded slower so will form headlands (differential erosion)

• Over time, deposition will occur in the bays as the majority of energy is directed towards the sticking out headlands
• This means the bays receive less energy and deposition therefore occurs forming a beach

251
Q

Spit definition

A

A sand beach that is joined to the land but projects out into sea

GCSEs (21 decks)

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