French Rev - Napoleon Bonaparte to 1807 III Flashcards
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The weakness of the opposition was the main reason for Napoleon’s military victories in the period to 1807’. How far do you agree?
- Having established himself as First consul Napoleon’s first aim was to win Tsar Paul away from the second coalition and make peace. As Britain and Austria could not agree on what would be a fair settlement Napoleon decided he would have to impose his own peace and to do that he would have to demonstrate his strength and defeat one of the allies first.
- In order to strengthen his own position as First consul Napoleon once again turned his attention on Italy. He embarked on a second Italian campaign aimed against Austria. With the bulk of the French forces commanded by General Moreau, facing Austria along the Rhine Napoleon planned for a short campaign. Relying on speed, his relatively small and ill-equipped force crossed the Alps, via the Great St. Bernard Pass in May 1800 and descended onto the north Italian plain.
- Just before meeting the Italians he dispersed his forces and send his commander away from the Battlefield and was very nearly defeated at the Battle of Marengo on 14th June 1800. One of his most brilliant marshalles, Desaix turned up and on his recommendation Napoleon adjusted his plans and attacked the enemy again, just as they had become complacent and begun to think they had won. A further French victory at Hohelinden in Bavaria six month later brought the war to an end and secured from France a very good peace in which Austria fully recognised the French rights to Belgium and gains in Italy. Britain was left isolated and war weary so accepted the Peace of Amiens in March 1802. This benefitted France and both sides knew that it was probably no more than a temporary truce allowing them time to regroup. It can be said to be the end of the revolutionary war started in 1792.
Napoleonic Wars 1803 - 1807
The treaty of Amiens was unpopular in Britain. Within a few months of its signing Napoleon intervened in the German states and Switzerland and was elected President of the new Italian Republic which provoked Britain into announcing that they would, after all, remain in Malta. On 16 May 1803 Britain declared war against France. There was however, little that Britain could do to France with a strong navy, but a very small army. In 1804 Pitt began to search for allies. He announced his willingness to pay subsidies on an unprecedented scale to any ally willing to provide troops against Napoleon, but neither Russia nor Austria came forward.
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Battle of Trafalgar
- Napoleon revived plans to invade England and prepared forces and an invasion fleet at Boulogne. While he faced just England alone, he trained up his new enormous army and turned raw conscripts into a formidable force. However, while Napoleon was a brilliant commander of land forces, his grasp of naval warfare was less assured and opposing him was Nelson, the greatest naval commander of the time. The decision to launch an invasion of England was taken in 1805. A combined Franco-Spanish fleet was to escort barges used to ferry an invasion army over to England. French commanders devised a plan to lure the Royal Navy away from the Channel. Nelson realised what the French were attempting and successfully engaged their fleet on 21st October at the Battle of Trafalgar.
- The combined French-Spanish fleet was destroyed and Napoleon was forced to abandon his plans to invade Britain. But even before this French disaster, Austria had finally been persuaded by Britain to come into the war and Napoleon had gathered up his Army of England and marched them south east to confront Austria.
Austerlitz
The campaigns of 1805 – 1807 show Napoleon at his military best winning a series of crushing victories against the armies of Austria, Prussia and Russia. Austrian forces were decisively outmanoeuvred and forced to surrender at Ulm in October 1805. The French defeat of an Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz on 2 December caused Russia to retreat rapidly out of Napoleon’s reach. This is when we hear of Pitt stating dramatically that he should roll up the map of Europe as they would not need it for 10 years. Austria felt she had little option other than to agree to peace and in December 1805 signed the Treaty of Pressburg.
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Continental Blockade
- Complicated negotiations between Napoleon and Prussia, involving Prussia’s acquisition of Hanover in return for agreeing to enforce Napoleon’s Continental Blockade led to a breakdown of relations and then to war between the two countries. During a remarkable one-week campaign Napoleon destroyed Prussian military power at the battles of Jena –
- though this was a near defeat again and only the determined leadership of Davout at Jena saved the day. He finally destroyed the Prussians at Auerstadt (October 1806. In February 1807 he marched through Poland to attack Russia, his only remaining continental enemy. At the bitterly fought Battle of Eylau each side inflicted heavy casualties on the other and neither could claim outright victory. By the summer French forces gained the upper hand and inflicted a decisive defeat at Friedland which convinced the Russians they needed to make peace. A settlement was agreed on 7 July 1807 at Tilsit, following a personal meeting between Napoleon and Tsar Alexander 1 on a raft in the middle of the River Niemen. Two days later the Prussians also agreed peace. French domination over Western and central Europe.
- By 1807 Napoleon had defeated three of his four opponents and apart from European Russia he was in control of the continent. To deal with Britain he established in November 1806 the Continental Blockade, attempting to close all European ports to British ships and present her from delivering financial subsidies to her allies.
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1800 Marengo
14th June
- Napoleon army faced off against an Austrian force
- Staged a dramatic comeback and won the balance with reinforcements arriving late in the day
- Effectively ended the 2nd coalition against France and solified his power as First Consul
- Peace terms weakened Austria in Italy - forcing Treaty of Lunevile
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1802 - Peace of Amiens
After Napoleon’s successes against Austria and peace with them, England was left alone in the fight.
- Ended war between France and Britain - temporary cesation of hostilities and to reset the political situation in Europe
- Brief period of peace, France gained important territories including control over much of Italy
BUT peace was fragile and the hostilities resumed in 1803
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16 May 1803 Britain declared war against France
- Tensions were rising, largely due to Napoleon’s expansionist ambitions and his desire to dominate Europe
- Reintroduction of French war ships into the Channel for military preparations
- Marked the beginning of the Napoleonic wars - Britain and France became the main belligents, with Britain forming coalitions with other major powers
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1804 - Pitt returns to government in England
- Retained PM after a brief period of political instability following initial resignation in 1801 -return came during a critical time when Britain was at war with France - tasked with leading Britain
- His return strengthened Britain’s resolve against Nap - led to the formation of new coalitions to fight France
- Britain would continue to oppose Nap, expansion
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Summer 1805 Napoleon assembles his army in Boulogne ready to invade England
- Launch an invasion across the English Channel
- Triggered the formation of the 3rd coalition - Nap. thwarted Britain’s naval superiority
- Buildup of Boulogne reflected Nap. determination to dominate Europe and end British ability
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Ulm 16th – 19th October 1805
- Napoleon’s army outmaneuvered the Austrian forces - forcing them to surrender without a significant battle and General Karl Von Mack was forced to capitulate
- Huge strategic success, allowed them to advance into Austria, paved the way for the French victory at the Battle of Austerlitz and cemented Nap presence in Europe
- Disintegrated 3rd coalition - Austria had to sign Treaty of Press - giving up large parts of territory to France
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Trafalgar
21st October 1805
- Between British royal navy and combined France and Spanish fleets - decisive naval victory for Britain - and Nelson’s tactic of dividing his fleet and attacking from both sides led to the destruction of Nap naval power - made him a war hero, representing British resilience
- Ended Nap plans for invading Britain by sea
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Austerlitz
2 December 1805
- Between Nap french force and combined Russia and Austrian forces - Nap forces defeated larger army through brilliant tactic, exploiting weaknesses and luring them into unfavourable positions
- Nap greatest victory - end of 3rd coalition, solidifed Nap presence as the uncontested leader of Europe, led to Treaty of Pressburg
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Treaty of Pressburg
signed on 26 December 1805
- Austria ceded significant territory to Europe - Venetia to the Kingdom of Italy and Tyrol to Bavana - weakened them
- Formation of the Confederation of the Rhine further diminished Austrian influence in the Germany - under French protection now
End of 3rd Coalition
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Jena-Auerstadt
October 14 1806
- Nap french forces v Prussian - defeated them in 2 simulataneous battles - crushing defeat for them, established french dominance in Germany and weakened Holy Roman empie
- Paved the way for Peace of Tilsit
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Eylau 7/8 February 1807
- Nap french forces v Russia - indecisive, both sides suffered heavy casualties - Nap claimed a victory, but essentially a draw as Russia retreated in good order
- Nap not invincible, high casualitie and morale impact - strategic stalemate but Nap had resilience in adverse conditions, ongoing conflict with Russia now from retreat
Friedland
(June 14, 1807)
Nap french forces v Russian army - defeated them - end of 4th coalition, Nap continued dominance and Tsar Alexander forced to ender negotiations
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Peace of Tilsit
7 July 1807
- Ended the war between France and Russia, Prussia was forced to sign - created a new European order with temporary peace, with Nap dominance confirmed - laid the foundations for new Continental System
- Creation of the Duchy of Warsaw - french satellite that carried into Polish territory
- Continental system aimed to blockade Britain and undermine its economy by restrcting trade with the rest of Europe
Weaknesses among his enemies: Austria
Austria had prepared for Napoleon to take 80 days to arrive so they were completed unprepared for his arrival and at the Battle of Ulm (October 1805), Barnett stresses that Napoleon faced an inactive old general Mack, who broke out with a single Austrian corps right across Bonaparte’s communications. The Austrian army had an impressive artillery which could have posed a threat to Napoleon if combined with Russia, but there was no universal language, and with it’s varied ethnic and racial populations this was a huge problem - it slowed communication and often left many in a state of confusion. This also meant that there was no real national identity allowing the kind of patriotism that the French could use to fight with.
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G.H.L. LeMay points out that the military features of Napoleonic France
- The emergency of revolution and survival had forced the new French government to be extremely resourceful. “Emergency is the mother of invention”. Firstly conscription had created an enormous army. Secondly patriotism and a feeling that the survival of the revolution and all the sacrifices they had made to get rid of the ancient regime relied on dedicated defence and loyalty to la patrie. Guibert began to teach the importance of offensive warfare and the importance of speed (which Napoleon learnt).
- LeMay says that Boonaparte inherited a fantastic instrument and that “he changed very little”. He also inherited a very large number of excellent officers. The revolution had abolished the privilege of birth and allowed men of audacity and skill to rise as far as their abilities and luck would take them.
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By 1807
- The French dominatedf Germany
- The Confederation of the Rhine was created as a French satellite state
- Prussian power destroyed and Prussian territory in Poland formed into the Grand Duchy of Warsaw.
- Napoleon crowned himself King of Italy, added Parma and Tuscany to French possessions of Piedmont and Lombardy and made Naples into a French satellite.
- Russia had been forced to make peace and make a formal alliance with France.
The development of winning tactics
During the years of comparative peace, between 1801 to 1805, Napoleon took advantage to reorganise the French armies. He introduced a structure that would be adopted by all European forces for the next century and a half. According to the military historian Michael Howard this, ‘..made possible almost unlimited decentralisation under a single command’. This new structure was based on the ideas of Guibert whose work was probably the most important influence on Napoleon’s military development. The whole army was divided into corps of about 25,000 – 30,000 men each comprised of two or three divisions, infantry and cavalry; some of the cavalry were kept separate, as were the reserve artillery and several elite groups, the most important of which was the Imperial Guard. Each corps was commanded by a Marshall who was directly responsible to Napoleon, the commanding general.
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The aim of the new structure was to allow unity of command under Napoleon while providing the various corps commanders with a measure of flexibility and autonomy if required. This could be achieved by:
- Giving each corps a particular role on a campaign march, but also allowing for this to be quickly changed if circumstances made it necessary.
- Allowing regiments to be transferred from one corps to another if required.
- The deployment of infantry or cavalry detachments away from the core of the army as skirmishers moving around as protective screens to shield the movement of the rest of the troops.
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Traditional military tactics
- Traditional military tactics had been that troops either marched in a column, or a line abreast. In 1791 a compromise which allowed commanders to mix things up began to be adopted and this was what Napoleon used most frequently in his battles. In his campaigns of 1805-7 Napoleon dispersed his forces into self-contained groups which advanced simultaneously at a distance of perhaps as much as a mile from each other along several roads – in effect forming a series of columns in line abreast. This allowed for mutual support and reinforcement in case of attack.
- Campaigning for Napoleon was, until 1807, a successful blend of mobility, speed and surprise, which brought rich rewards. Not until the enemy learnt how to counter his strategies did the situation change.
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Recent assessments of Napoleon’s military career suggest that:
- While he always formulated a general plan he was brilliant at adapting and taking advantage of any enemy errors.
- He could improvise in the heat of battle abandoning his original plan without hesitation.
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There are failures. Napoleon did have weaknesses – see below:
- He was unwilling to take others into his confidence and this meant there were serious weaknesses in the chain of command. - Sometimes out of sheer obstinacy, as at Boulogne in 1805 he refused advice from those who knew better than he did the dangers to his ships from tide and weather.
- He was not an innovator and made no significant contribution to tactics, introduced no new weapons and was not open to new ideas. His contribution to strategy was not original. This led to avoidable losses in Egypt and in Saint Domingue from heat and fever and on other occasions as when crossing the Oder in 1806, from cold snow and mud.
- The armies he commanded were those created during the Revolution by the levee en masse, many years before he came to power.
- His lack of interest in the provision of maps covering terrain, and his failure to appreciate the difference between foraging in the prosperous and well-populated west of Europe and in the bare lands further east, caused his men unnecessary hardship.
- Napoleon may have declared that the men’s health was of paramount importance to him, but the sick and wounded on campaign were left to die and army medical services were reduced to save money.
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Napoleon achieved some great conquests in a relatively short space of time.
- According to the military historian Charles Esdaille, a key factor in the dramatic improvement of French military fortunes after 1800 was the “irreplaceable genius of Napoleon himself. He also knew how to exploit his victories, to extract the maximum advantage from those he defeated. As Martin Lyons points out, French domination relied on diplomatic success as well as military achievements, and the great achievement of French diplomacy was to keep the coalition powers divided.
As head of state and head of the army Napoleon was a great organiser. He devoted a great deal of time to government business even while campaigning. Napoleon possessed
enormous self-belief. In 1804 he wrote “I am destined to change the face of the world”. When necessary he could be ruthless in pursuit of his objectives as with the murder of the Duc D’Enghein, but his contemporaries had no doubt about the charismatic quality of his leadership. His great adversary Wellington said of him that the effect of his presence on a field was worth an additional 40,000 men to the French army.
- By the use of theatrical and emotional language in his Bulletins and orders of the Day, Napoleon formed a special bond between himself and the army. He played on the ideas of military glory, of patriotism and comradeship, while at the same time giving the impression that he had a deep paternal concern for his men. To this they responded with real devotion. In a Bulletin from 1805 during the campaign against Austria he wrote “The Emperor is among you. He sets the example: he is on horseback day and night; he is amongst his troops wherever his presence is necessary”
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Assess the arguments that Napoleon was a great general - YES
- Introduced a structure that would be adopted by all European forces for the next century and a half, whole army divided up into corps of 25-30k EACH comprising of 2-3 divisions. The aim of the new structure was to allow unity of command under Nap. while providing the various corps and commanders with a measure of flexibility and autonomy. Marched his men in a series of columns in line abbreast for mutual support and reinforcement in case of attack
- Brilliant at adopting and take advantage of enemy errors, whilst also having charm and inspirational abilities - Wellington saying Nap. on the field was worth 40k men
- Campaigning for Nap was until, 1807, a successful blend of mobility, speed and surprise
Weaknesses among his enemies: Russia
The Russian army also had huge problems, one of the main ones being the fact that the soldiers did not want to be fighting a war at all. Surrounding the conscript army was a negative, fatalistic view of army life - a darkly amusing fact is that soldiers could often go to their own funeral before they were conscripted away to battle. Apart from the fact that they were treated like criminals, Russian soldiers were also poorly trained, severely lacking in tactical awareness and education.
Weaknesses among his enemies: Prussia
Prussia on the other hand, with its fine tradition, had a very strong army. However, the Prussian skirmishes were poor and the army missed a sense of individuality (instinct or initiative) and instead acted after strategic planning alone. Furthermore, the Prussian artillery could not come close to the French standards, being completely out gunned on some occasions, even when the French had far less numbers.
Weaknesses among his enemies: British army
The British army, before 1807, was not much of a force to be reckoned with - it was tiny and the English government focused more on supporting and training the navy. Pitt knew the army was not up to defeating Napoleon so concentrated on trying to create a coalition against him and provide money to aid this. Coalition however, ran up again against problems of self interest disunity.
Napoleon division in 2nd coalition
Napoleon’s enemies showed were divided as they failed to forge a successful alliance against Napoleon. The Second Coalition of 1799 is an example of this. It was between Britain, Russia, Austria and the Ottoman Empire. However, there was no single aim. Soon there was political fallout between Russia and Britain over Malta, which allowed Napoleon to interfere and get Russia onto his side, and then bully Austria into the Peace of Luneville. Although it can be seen that Napoleon was successful in ‘divide and rule’ as he was able to split the allies and forge a separate alliance, this failed coalition also shows the incompetence of Napoleon’s enemies to united against him.
