French Rev - Napoleon Bonaparte to 1807 II Flashcards
1
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4
The Coup of Brimaire origins
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- 1799 was momentous in France! - Nap’s Egyptian campaign provoked a re-emergence of a powerful anti-France alliance, many french peasants were resisting conscription and Directory unpopular
Government introduced harsh measures:
- Raised a forced loan from the rich - 100M livres
- Against popular monarchists - Law of Hostages passed - any areas resisting government law could be declared ‘disturbed’ - authorities could arrest emigres, nobles, rebels and they would lose property
- To deal with external threat - Jourdan’s law - proposed the reintroduction of conscription including the area of the Austrian Netherlands which had only recently be conquered - of the first draft of 230K only 74K reached the army
2
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3
Napoleon’s role in the Coup de Brimaire 1799
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- Sieyes planned, aimed at strengthening the executive at the expense of the more unpredictable legislative assembly - needed popular, successful military support
Napoleon was chosen and given 8000 because:
- He was securely anti-royalist with his Jacobin background
- His military disasters in Egypt were not known, only his Europe ones
- His military record did not indicate to them that he had political ambitions
‘What we want is a republic founded on true liberty, civil liberty and national representations; and we are going to have it’
3
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5
Coup de Brimaire 1799 play-out
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- Ancients and 5 hundred began their meetings in St Cloud - news reached that Directors resigned - needed to make a new, provisional government - Nap became impatient and burst in
- Then, with 4 grenadiers, went to 5 hundred. Jacobin majority arguing fiercly against a proposal that the Directory should be replaced by a stronger executive body. 5 hundred suspected Nap of politting to make himself militarily ruler of France under a new constitution forced through the Councils - ‘outlaw the dictator’
- Recently appointed president of the 5 hundred was his brother Lucien Bonaparte - quelled the demands of proposed outlawry and after being jostled, Nap rescued, pale and shaken, saying ‘they answered me with dagger blows’. Famously drew his sword and swore to kill him if Nap ever threatened the liberty of France
- Evening, opposition dispersed and moderate members of 5 hundred re-assembled under the Law of Brimaire - accepted proposals of Ancients of 3 provisional rulers - Sieyes, the nonentity Ducos and Napoleon - 3 rulers would be Consuls
Napoleonic era was about to begin!
4
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2
Napoleon establishing power after the Coup of Brimaire as the undisputed leader of France
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- Nap forced Sieyes into the humiliating position of having to make the official nomination of Nap as First Consul (he was later compensated by being given the presidency of the Senate and a large estate in the country)- wanted complete control and other consuls would advise
- France was transformed from a coutnry where responsibility was spread as widely as possible to one where it was in the hands of one single man
5
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3
Examination of the new constitution Napoleon set up
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- The electoral system adopted at the beginning of the consulate was Sieyès invention and certainly provided for universal suffrage unlike the property based vote of 1795, but the voting was too indirect to mean that the voters actually had any say. Women (of course ) were not included, and the Frenchmen who were on the registers to vote chose 10% of their number to form a departmental list. These lists were then reduced again to form a national list and from this national list, the Senate chose the members of two legislative bodies.
- The Two legislative bodies were no longer called the Ancients and the Five Hundred. The Tribunate of 100 members could discuss legislation but could not vote on it and a Legislature of 300 members could vote on legislation by secret ballot but could not discuss it.
- The First Consul chose a Council of State to come up with ideas for laws that they could put before the Tribunate and the Legislature. There was also a Senate consisting of people nominated by Napoleon who held office for life originally about 60 growing larger as Napoleon wanted to reward more people.
6
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3
Roles from the new constitution
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- First Consul - appoints and removes ministers, initiates legislation, can declare war and make peace - power is centralised, no popular sov
- Nominates Council of State (30-40 members that nominate central and local officials and help to initiate legislation) and Senate (60 members over 40)
- Chosen from 6000 notables - who make the Tribunate (discuss legislature but can’t vote) and Legislature (300 men over 30 - can vote but can’t discuss it so malpractice and intimidation affected the results)
7
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3
Why people wanted to be Senators and why this gave Nap. extra power
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- Was able to amend the constitution by a legal procedure known as senators - Nap. wanted to block the wishes of Tribunate and Legislature
- Appointed for life, substantial salary, rewarded with gifts, land, moneyy and considerable prestige
- Membership increased from 80 to 140 by 1814 - most additional members directly nominated by Nap (benefactor and president) - developed a largely consultative body anxious to please
8
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3
Plebiscites
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- The direct vote of all the members of an electorate on an important public question such as a change in the constitution
- An attempt to seek popular approval for significant changes
- Fixed it to say what they wanted - necessary to bind the beneficaries of these transfers to the new regime and created a political system which followed the well-off propertied clauses - governed a dictatorship, reversion to Jacobin phase of Rev, cultivating support of notables - Nap seeking to incorporate an docnsolidate the new elite of talent and property that had emerged since 1789
9
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2
What did the new constitution establish?
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- The whole electoral system was shown to be very inefficient when it was finally put into operation in 1801 and Napoleon abolished it the following year before all the lists were complete. He introduced a new arrangement that lasted until the end of his rule and which reduced still further the element of popular choice. All adult males met to elect life members to departmental colleges or boards. However, electors only had a limited choice of candidates as life members had to be selected from a list of the 600 richest men in the department.
- In a number of ways the new constitution established a framework for ensuring that the main social gains made during the French Revolution were secured. Among them most important of these changes was the vast transfer of land that had taken place largely at the expense of the Catholic Church and the French nobility. It was necessary to bind the beneficiaries of these transfers to the new regime. This was achieved by creating a political system which favoured the propertied classes.
10
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4
Was Napoleon’s Constitutions ‘a mere cover for dictatorship?’ - YES
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- The 2 lower houses were weakened by the Tribunate being able to propose laws but not pass them and the Legislature having a vote but not being able to discuss them
- No law could pass without the approval of Bonaparte who appointed central government officials and senators but also key officials in local gov
- Direct appeals to the people in plebisictes were rigged to esnure Napoleon’s view prevailed - EG when they approved Napoleon being Consul for Life in 1802
- Senate was purged by Napoleon to ensure obedience
11
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4
Was Napoleon’s Constitutions ‘a mere cover for dictatorship?’ - NO
A
- Though weak and ineffecient could still be opposition expressed in the Tribunate and - Legislative approval was needed for budgets and to raise new taxes
- Napoleon’s policies and actions could be discussed in the Council of State
- Senate had to approve removing judges, dispensing with laws or imposing martial law
- Courts still operated, even if they were special tribunals appointed by the state and needed evidence to convict people
I’d say liberal authoritarian - not a dictatorship yet
12
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5
The hereditary principle
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- Napoleon only narrowly escaped assassination in December 1800 making the Senate acutely aware of the fragile nature of the regime dependent for its continuation upon one man.
- As a demonstration of gratitude to the First consul for his achievements at home and abroad it was decided to offer him the Consulship for life, with the right to nominate his successor. It was the first step towards the reintroduction of the hereditary principle and rule, which had been abandoned with the overthrow of Louis.
- In 1804 a member of the Bourbon royal family , the Duc D’Enghien was alleged to be involved in a plot to murder Napoleon. The kidnapped on Napoleon’s orders while on neutral territory, tired and on very inadequate evidence found guilty of conspiracy
- The property owners took seriously the Bourbon pretender’s recent threat to return all ‘stolen properties’ to their rightful owners as soon as he regained the throne and most were convinced that only Napoleon stood between him and the loss of all they had gained by the Revolution. There was widespread talk of making the Consulship hereditary in the Bonaparte family, in the hope of providing for a smooth succession and the survival of the constitution should Napoleon meet an untimely death. On 18th May 1804 a motion was approved by the Senate that ‘Napoleon Bonaparte at present First consul be declared Emperor of the French.
- A third plebiscite was held in November 1804 in order to confirm that Napoleon should become hereditary emperor of the French. Many in France believed this would give France greater security and stability.
13
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4
Napoleon securing his position - financial reform
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Of the many problems confronting the new government probably the most important was the need to establish financial stability and secure and adequate revenue stream - appointed ministers like Gaudin, Minister of Finances in 1799
- A much clearer divisions of role between the ministry of finances and treasury
- Reorganisation of both direct and indirect tax collection
- First steps in establishing a public banking system
- New gold and silver coins - soundest currency
14
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3
Napoleon’s patronage and bribery
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To secure his position Napoleon sought to attract and bind to his regime as many powerful political and military figures as possible. He adopted a number of strategies that appealed to people’s self-interest, vanity and desire for status. He lavished gifts of money, land titles, honours and government appointments and set up a substantial support base
- Also made the ‘Legion D’Honneur’ - a distinctive decoration and small annual award, as well as ‘Grand dignatories’ and ‘Grand Officers’
- Couldn’t rely on rewards alone - not enough to maintain popular support even among the recepients
15
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4
Napoleon’s coercian and control
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- The restriction of individual liberty was an important element of Napoleon’s policy of consolidating and maintaining his grip on power.
- The general police operated under the Control of the minister of Police, for much of the Napoleonic era this was Joseph Fouché. He organised surveillance and gathering of intelligence on those suspected of being a threat to security. Fouché was one of the most ruthless and feared men of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic period and also one of its greatest survivors. Under Napoleon he directed the police to gather intelligence and behave as spies. Their principal functions were to impose censorship, watch out for any opponents to the government, search for army deserters and organise raids on areas where they night be hiding.
- On 17th February 1800 a law was passed which reformed local government. The key position in this new structure was that of prefect. Each department would have a prefect and they had sub prefects. They acted as agents of the central government and were appointed by Napoleon and were accountable solely to him. Their direct accountability and the powers they were given allowed for a system of state control
- On 1 December 1803 Napoleon introduced a livret which was basically a pass book that every employer had which contained his personal details and allowed his records to be kept.
With such well organised surveillance it is not surprising that the regime met with little serious political opposition.
16
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3
Napoleon’s ‘Civil Code’ - Legal and Judicial Reforms
A
Its purpose was to create one law code for all of France. It divided civil law into
- Personal status
- Property and the acquisition of Property
- The early 1790s had seen a bias towards a system based on liberal laws, accepting equality of people before the law, civil marriage, divorce and equal division of property between heirs, but from 1795 there had been a reaction in favour of the more authoritarian Roman law that emphasised male authority and the father’s rights. The Civil Code was strongly influenced by the principles of Roman Law that fitted in well with Napoleon’s own views on society and the inferior status of women.
- The Code has been praised as the most impressive of all the legislative measures carried out by Napoleon sweeping away all the different laws of the different areas and making law consistent for all. Napoleon considered it his finest achievement and the legal changes certainly confirmed the abolition of feudalism and gave fixed legal title to those who had purchased church land. It also followed the Revolutionary principle of partage which is equal division of estates among male heirs instead of primogeniture
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17
Q
How was Napoleon’s Civil Code restrictive?
A
- Individual male rights to ownership of property were maintained and the civil rights of Frenchmen were assured, but married women fared badly. A man had total authority over his wife and family and he could send an adulterous wife or a defiant child to prison. Divorce though permitted in theory, was made difficult and expensive.
- Slavery was reintroduced in the French colonies “in accordance with the laws current in 1789”.
- Workmen were made subject to close police supervision which made it legally impossible to obtain a job without a pass called the livret.
18
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4
Napoleon and Education
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- Napoleon built many new lyées, schools for boys age 10 to 16. He recognized the importance of education in producing citizens capable of filling positions in his bureaucracy and military. Although he did not create a system of mass education, education was more available to the middle class than it ever had been before. At a meeting in 1807 he declared:
- Of all our institutions public education is the most important. Everything depends on it, the present and the future. It is essential that the morals and political ideas of the generation which is now growing up should no longer be dependent upon the news of the day or the circumstances of the moment. Above all we must secure unity: we must be able to cast a whole generation in the same mould.
- He saw education as a way of indoctrinating “right-thinking” citizens from an early age. He didn’t see the need to educate girls, since they could learn everything they needed from their mothers. They were not to be active citizens.
- Education for the ordinary people was neglected by Napoleon as it had been by the governments of the ancient regime and of the Revolution. All that was considered necessary for ordinary people was a simple ‘moral education’ and basic literacy and numeracy. This was provided in primary schools run by Church, by local community or individuals. Napoleon often declared his belief in equal opportunities for all according to ability and irrespective of birth or wealth, what he called ‘careers open to talents’ but he generally failed to ensure this was carried out.
19
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2
Napoleon’s 2 main reasons for education
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- Provide the state with a ready supply of civilian officers, administrators and loyal and disciplined army officials - intended to recruit these from amongst songs of the property owning classes
- Bind the nation closer - could only be fulfilled if the gov took direct central control over the system
20
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4
Napoleon reforms to secondary education
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- Replaced the ecoles centrales with more centrally controlled lycees - 45, staffed by Nap
- State provided 6400 scholarships, 2400 for soldiers and gov. officials
- Much sought after places restricted to sons of notables
- Identical textbooks for common syllabus
21
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4
Napoleon and propoganda
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- The benefits of propaganda however could only be realized if all other sources of information were controlled (has known this since Italy and Egypt)
- Napoleon had clear expectations that the French press would deliver all official propaganda. He was very aware of the power of the Press and their capacity to undermine his regime.
- It was not only newspapers that were censored. Up to 1810 reports on all books, plays, lectures and posters that appeared in Paris were sent daily to Napoleon. In 1810 a regular system of censors was set up more than half the printing presses in Paris were shut down and publishers were forced to take out a license and swear loyalty to the government (reduced political journals from 73 - 9 in 1800) Authors were harassed and sometimes forced into exile if they criticised the government, and dramatists were forbidden to refer to any historical event that might, however indirectly, reflect adversely on the present regime. Many theatres were closed down and one poet was put in a mental asylum for writing, “the great Napoleon is a great chameleon”.
- In addition to ensuring that bulletins from the front exaggerated and emphasised French victories and the role played in them. He also used art to depict him as a romantic hero figure or the embodiment of supreme imperial authority.
22
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3
Napoleon and religion
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- When Napoleon came to power, he reconciled the differences between the state and the Catholic Church, undoing many revolutionary reforms. During the Directory there had been a revival of Catholic public worship that no government could safely have ignored or opposed. Napoleon’s motives for seeking rapprochement with the Pope were those of expediency.
- His own attitude to religion was ambivalent. Although he Napoleonic legend was to have it that he was a Catholic, he paid no more attention to it than lip service. He was brought up a Catholic but as a good Jacobin he had become, if not exactly an atheist at least an agnostic. What he appreciated was the power of religion to act as a social bond, cementing together divided people. Napoleon saw the value of bringing together a divided people. Napoleon saw the importance of bringing together the clergy who had sworn allegiance to the revolution and those who had not.
- The Concordant was published by Napoleon the following year in April 1802 as part of a wide-ranging ecclesiastical law on to which he tacked the so called “Organic Articles”. These were a series of clauses limiting Papal control over French bishops while increasing state control over the clergy.
23
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4
What was agreed in the Concordat signed in July 1801
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- Seperation of the Church and State
- Catholic Church recognised the Revolution
- State-controlled Church
- Toleration for other religions alongside Catholic workship
24
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4
Achievements of the Civil Code
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- Consolidated many of the gains of the French Rev - EG abolition of feudalism
- Established principle of equality before the law and ended the existence of different legal codes
- Showed Nap. ambition of being a domestic reformer and not merely a dictator
- Basis of French law and was very influential in Europe
25
Q
Restrictions of the Civil Code
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Continued many aspects of inequality - EG women - showed Napoleon’s belief in authority
