French Rev mock q Flashcards
5
The Work and Reforms of the National Constituent Assembly
The National Assembly’s reforms are viewed by many as having created the foundations for modern France
o Turn France into a constitutional monarchy, including the creation of a new constitution.
o Rebuild the economy
o Decentralise administration and create a uniform and acceptable legal system.
o Agree the relationship between Church and State.
o Deal with the King- he cannot be trusted but no-one (yet) wants to get rid of him.
4
The reforms attempted to address four key principles, linked to democratic government:
- The principle of election (including judges, the clergy and government)
- The principle of meritocracy (election and employment for ability)
- The principle of equality (before law, in taxation etc)
- The principle of wealth (voting qualifications based on wealth, one can buy into land).
3
Area of Reform - Constitution examples of reform
- A Constitutional Monarchy was put in place: the King still has power but in the form of a four year veto on laws and subject to an elected assembly.
- The right to vote was restricted to ‘active citizens’- males over 25 resident in one place for a year and who paid 3 days wages/labour in taxes.
- To stand for office or become a Deputy one had to pay more taxes (10 days and 50 days- the marc d’argent- respectively
4
Area of Reform - Constitution evaluation
ü Election firmly asserted, making government more democratic.
ü The King lost supreme power.
ü Allows the Third Estate to participate in government.
û Relies on taxes and wealth over merit.
3
Area of Reform - Economic taxes and tariffs
- Indirect taxes, tax farming and state monopolies (e.g. tobacco) were all abolished. - Three new taxes were introduced: the Contributions Fonciere and Mobliere (universal land tax and a tax on movable goods for active citizens) and the Pantente (tax on commercial profits). These were charged according to ability to do so and were collected by municipal councils.
- Free trade (removal of price control) for grain was introduced in August 1789, and the measure extended to other products the following year
- In October 1790 internal tariffs were abolished, creating a national market for the first time. A single system of weights and measures (decimal) was also introduced.
3 good, 3 bad
Area of Reform - Economic taxes and tariffs evaluation
ü The abolishment of the old system allowed a fresh start, which lasted through the 19th century.
ü Removing special privileges was fairer.
ü Payment by ability helped the poor.
û There was no systematic evaluation of land value due to the expense, meaning unproductive land was unfairly taxed.
û Tax rolls (lists of taxpayers) were based on those of the ancient regime and contained massive discrepancies between regions. û The existing system remained until 1791 while the new one was arranged, leading to violent riots. These taxes were easier to avoid- up to 66% were not paid.
û Most people did not want free trade- they wanted essential goods to be price controlled to prevent high prices.
2
Area of Reform - Economic - Church land and assignants
- Church land was nationalised on the 2nd of November, 1789. Assignats- paper bonds- were bought in order to purchase land and soon became a new currency.
- The state took over many Church responsibilities in return including clerical salaries, education and poor relief.
2 good, 2 bad
Area of Reform - Economic - Church land and assignants evaluation
ü Quick sales gave the new system immediate support, and created a vested interest in its preservation.
ü Peasants were able to buy relatively large plots in the countryside.
û The bourgeoisie had more ready cash so bought up the land nears towns.
û Assignats became inflated so value varied
2
Area of Reform - Local government
- A three tier system of departments, districts and communes loosened central control.
- Officials were elected to councils by active citizens. Councils were responsible for law and order, taxes, amenities such as roads and church maintenance and the National Guard.
1 good, 2 bad
Area of Reform - Local government - evaluation
- Elections were fairer than selection- the third estate could influence and have more representation on councils. Active citizens were a wider cross section of society.
û Positions tended to be held by the bourgeoisie, though there was a shortage of literate and educated men to fill them.
û Wealth had a large impact on the system.
3
Area of Reform - Law
- Justice was intended to be free, fair and universally available.
- A single legal system was introduced.
- Torture, branding and hanging were forbidden and there were fewer capital offences.
Area of Reform - Law evaluation
ü A uniform system was fairer.
ü Election rather than appointment was fairer, and meritocratic.
ü Justice became fairer, cheaper and more Enlightened.
6
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
This was a compulsory oath for all the clergy, recognising the Church’s subservience to the State. The Assembly demanded the loyalty oath. The Pope and most of the clergy (‘refractory priests’) refused.
o There were to be 83 bishops (1 per department) rather than 135.
o Clergy were to be elected; the Pope would have no say in the selection of bishops.
- The clergy were divided 50-50 over the issue but were angered when the Assembly refused them a Church synod (discussion).
- The peasantry, particularly in the south and west, supported these refractory priests.
- The King was very opposed to the Civil Constitution, due to his strong faith and tradition. This may be considered to have been a test of his willingness to be a cooperative constitutional monarch but instead occasioned a huge falling out with the National Assembly.
5
What caused the development of division and discontent?
- Fear of counter revolution, particularly from the refractory priests and peasants, led to a martial crackdown by the Assembly. Unrest in the provinces, especially the south, and émigrés/nobles gathering at Caen seemed only to add to this. On July 17th the National Guard fired on a peaceful protest at the Champ de Mars.
- The rise of the political clubs- effectively pressure groups- with different opinions. The most important were the Feuillants (constitutional), Jacobins (moderate republicans) and Cordeliers (radical and violent with working class members).
- Louis XVI’s was increasingly unwilling to support the Assembly, as was Marie Antoinette- who described the constitution as “monstrous”. People thought he was not devoted to their constitution or the new system.
- The Flight to Varennes showed that the King could not be trusted and his use of his veto against protective measures (against émigrés and refractory priests) added to increasing debate over his dethronement.
- The liberal president of the Assembly, Honoré Mirabeau, died. He had been both liked by the King and trusted by the people and his death removed an important bridging element between them.
5
Political clubs - supporters, aims, other information - Jacobins
- Originally wealthy, liberal constitutional monarchists (high admission fee). Limited constitutional monarchy.
- Disliked the Girondins.
- Centralised organisation. Revolutionary republicans who desire dethronement.
- Well to do for their class. Few, but well organised.
- Robespierre, Danton. A minority under Robespierre came from the Sections of Paris, radicals and sans-culottes.
4
Political clubs - supporters, aims, other information - Girodins
- Mostly provincial deputies, originating in the Gironde region. Some Jacobins.
- Antimonarchy and the first to suggest a trial. - - Want stability and federalism- localised power. Support war with Austria. Do not like the Paris mob. Men of little action.
- Orators, who led the Jacobins until Robespierre took over.
- More a collected of the likeminded than an individual group; the leaders opposed each other but all though Robespierre too radical and too close to the sans-culottes. Brissot, Paine.
4
Political clubs - supporters, aims, other information - Cordeliers
- Radicals. Bourgeoisie with a widespread sans-culotte following (no admission fee). Much of the Paris Mob.
- Revolutionary and antimonarchy, who monitor the government closely. Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité- hostile to voter distinction and privileges.
- Favour radical, direct action; insurrections and violent attacks on all forms of privilege. See the attack on the Bastille as perfectly legitimate.
- Danton and the other moderates left, leaving the ‘enragés’ such as Hébert and the bloodthirsty Marat in charge. Moved to create the Revolutionary Army.
2
Political clubs - supporters, aims, other information - Feuillants
- Moderates Want a constitutional agreement with the King, freedom of press and speech, the rights of man and land voting qualifications. Oppose war with Austria.
- Reacted against the Jacobins and the enemies of the Girondins. Lafayette, Guillotine.
6
The Flight to Varennes
- Louis XVI decided to flee Paris and place himself under the protection of the military commander of Lorraine.
- He felt restricted under the Assembly’s rule and hoped to peacefully renegotiate the areas of the constitution which he disliked.
- He left Paris secretly with his family on the 20th of June but was recognised at Varennes and brought back to Paris on the night of the 21st.
- Unfortunately, he had left a note setting out his dislike for the Civil Constitution and other elements of the new regime.
- On the 22nd June, Tom Paine fastened a manifesto to the door of the Assembly, declaring the Flight was equivalent to abdication and that the King was superfluous.
- The Flight may be regarded as a serious blunder: the King was suspended and lost what little popularity remained to him, whilst calls for a republic grew, especially among the radical Jacobins.
4
The Champs de Mars Massacre
- On the 17th July 1791, 50 000 people gathered to sign a republican petition.
- The Assembly pressured the Commune, who were still running Paris, to apply martial law and the National Guard fired on the unarmed protestors, killing 50. They became republican martyrs.
- This was the first clash within the Third Estate and bought the Assembly more provincial support. Some popular leaders were arrested and others went into hiding.
- The moderates were thus able to dominate government for a year, creating an opportunity for a compromise with the King.
3
The Legislative Assembly
- On the 13th September 1791, the King accepted the Constitution and thus ended the provisional National Constituent Assembly (intended to bridge regimes), which met for the last time on the 30th September.
- Robespierre suggested a “self-denying ordinance”, which meant that the new Legislative Assembly could not contain any members of the previous Constituent Assembly, including himself.
- The Legislative Assembly was largely bourgeoisie and very inexperienced. The removal of church, constitutional and counter-revolutionary influences by the ordinance also meant that it was more radical and republican.
Emigrés and the Counter-Revolution
In early 1791, 1200 officers fled to Austria. Following the Flight to Varennes, a further 6000 (60% of the total) emigrated, joining the ancient regime bishops, hereditary nobles and judges on the borders. The army was left lacking leadership in a period where hostile neighbours grew increasingly menacing.
2
The King’s Veto
- In November 1791, the King vetoed two laws the Assembly saw as vital but which he fundamentally opposed: the declaration any émigrés who did not return by the 1st of January were traitors and their property subject to confiscation and that all non-jurors (refractory priests) were suspects.
- Suspicion grew that he was undermining the Revolution. Louis XVI was proving himself to be a poor constitutional monarch.
3
Why did France go to war?
- Many European regimes had allowed the Revolution, since it weakened France (Prussia) or due to sympathy with liberal demands (Britain).
- However, when the monarchy was threatened, Leopold II of Austria (Marie Antoinette’s brother) felt the need to issue, in association with Prussia, the Declaration of Pillnitz in August 1791, expressing a readiness to help restore Louis XVI. It was really only a gesture, but Marie Antoinette fervently believed in it and maintained a secret correspondence trading military secrets- which when discovered later was used as evidence of treason.
- Clamour for combat increased and in 1792 Louis appointed a new Girondin government intent on war.
4
People for war
- Lafayette (liberal noble and commander of National Guard) Disillusioned by the development of the revolution, he desired a restoration of the monarchy. He thought a short, successful war would unite the people behind the King and strengthen his own position to dictate new terms for the King and Assembly.
- Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette - Louis XVI was happy to support the war, hoping it would help his own position and ends. Marie Antoinette was secretly writing to Austria, and though war was the only way to defeat the hated revolutionaries, who she thought would be easily overcome.
- Narbonne, Minister for War - Hoped that war would bring a strong military government and strengthen his own position.
- The Girondins, aka Brissotins (they were led by Brissot) - Hoped it would bring them into power and strengthen support for the Revolution (people would have to choose a side), as well as spreading liberty, keeping the King in check, remove the external threats to France (including émigrés), divert the sans-culottes from their food concerns (riots), stabilise the currency and open new markets.
People against war
Robespierre - Thought that France needed to deal with internal enemies first, as war would give them an opportunity to damage the revolution. He was suspicious of Lafayette and the other generals.
5
The Attack on the Hotel de Ville
- The Hotel de Ville was the City Hall, and the headquarters of the Duc D’Orleans and the centre of anti-monarchy resistance. It was attacked because the Assembly ignored a sans-culotte petition and they wanted to establish a new commune government.
- 20 000 sans-culottes and National Guards, along with 2000 federés, marched on the Palace of Tuileries, led by Danton and Marat. The King fled to the Legislative Assembly, where he was pursued.
- Radicals then invaded the Assembly and demanded he be surrendered to them and imprisoned in the Temple (a medieval castle-prison). The Assembly have no choice but to comply.
- The King and his family were lodged on two floors, with 14 staff. Petty indignities abounded, such as people remaining seated and hatted in his presence.
- The Commune took control of Paris until the election of the new National Convention. Those moderates of the Assembly who did not flee obeyed them. The Commune was more radical and accepted the two vetoed laws, as well as abolishing the remaining feudal dues. On the 11th of August they granted the right to arrest counter revolutionaries to local authorities
5
The September Massacres
- By August, France was in a dire position regarding the war. The Prussians were within 60 miles of Paris and, in the Brunswick Manifesto, had threatened to raze it. The French could not hope to hold out against them, even with the thousands of volunteers amassing in the city, especially since they had lost their commander Lafayette.
- This defection and an increasing fear of desertion, treason and danger led the Assembly to grant the power to arrest counter revolutionaries to local councils on 11th August.
- This was immediately acted on. Rumours that these ‘counter-revolutionaries’ were planning to escape and help the enemies of France led the sans-culottes to panic and act beyond the authorities. Up to 2000 prisoners were massacred between the 2nd and 6th of September. Though this act was not sanctioned, the sans-culottes were not punished and a precedent for violence ‘in defence of the revolution’ was set.
- The atmosphere became increasingly violent, suspicious and mob-minded. Opinions polarised rapidly.
- On the 20th September, the French won a victory at Valmy and the massacres stop. This would appear to show that fear of the war was directly linked to the outbreak of violence.
5
Why put the king on trial and execute him?
- Something had to be done with Louis XVI: as long as he lived, even locked up, he would be a focus for foreign powers and a rallying point for the counter-revolution, as well as a pain.
- Military successes despite his actions suggested he was irrelevant to France’s survival.
- The discovery of chest with incriminating papers- Marie Antoinette’s- including battle plans and tactics relayed to the Austrians provoked charges of treason.
- Want trial and execution: Robespierre, Girondins, Marat, Brissot, Danton, Montagnards (centre) and sans-culottes.
- Still believe in divine right and will be outraged: Peasants, refractory priests, noble
5
Why put the king on trial and execute him?
- Something had to be done with Louis XVI: as long as he lived, even locked up, he would be a focus for foreign powers and a rallying point for the counter-revolution, as well as a pain.
- Military successes despite his actions suggested he was irrelevant to France’s survival.
- The discovery of chest with incriminating papers- Marie Antoinette’s- including battle plans and tactics relayed to the Austrians provoked charges of treason.
- Want trial and execution: Robespierre, Girondins, Marat, Brissot, Danton, Montagnards (centre) and sans-culottes.
- Still believe in divine right and will be outraged: Peasants, refractory priests, nobles
6
Why did the Constitutional Monarchy come to an end?
- War Panic, e.g. Brunswick Manifesto and the September Massacres. Allowed the rise of the radicals, as well as the journées at the Hotel de Ville and Tuileries. Increases threat of émigrés and deserters as counter-revolutionaries. Justified extreme measures.
- The King The Flight to Varennes was a serious blunder. His refusal to co-operate with the Assembly-General, National Assembly etc. made him irrelevant and a problem. Marie Antoinette Deeply unpopular. Trunk of letters aided accusations of royal treachery immeasurably.
- Political Divisions, Machinations and Clubs The rise of the radicals, especially as controllers of the mob. Girondins in power- and their role in encouraging war/laws. The influence of the Cordeliers (Tuileries). Personal aims (e.g. Nabronne, Lafayette). Radicalisation due to Robespierre’s ‘self-denying ordinance’.
- Religion The Pope encouraged Louis to reject the Civil Constitution and the King’s belief in Divine Right was grounded in faith. The refractory priests were central to the counter-revolution. The Civil Constitution split opinions.
- Reforms The Enlightened concept of égalité rendered monarchy unnecessary. Reforms upset various parties, causing radicalisation and divisions. They also led to questions about the role of monarchy.
- Economic Crisis 1791-2 bad harvest led to the highest corn prices ever. The crisis of the ancient regime- reform wasn’t resolving problems fast enough, leaving the people angry (for example, there were riots when the National Assembly did not immediately remove the old taxes).
7
The Emergence of Government by Terror
- Committee of Public Safety (CPS) - 6th April 1793 Set up to supervise and speed up the activities of ministers, whose authority it superseded. No Girondins, seven from the plain, Danton and Robespierre. Officially to deal with the war effort- very powerful- officially approved by the Assembly every month.
- Revolutionary Tribunal - 10th March 1793 A court specialising in trying those accused of counter revolutionary activities (quickly). Set up in Paris and intending to prevent events such as the September Massacres. Eventually an identity check is enough to be a guilty verdict. “Let us embody Terror so as to prevent the people from doing so” -Danton
- Committee of General Safety (CGS) Twelve man committee responsible for rooting out counter-revolutionaries and dealing with internal security. It controlled a large spy network and ran a secret revolutionary police force.
- Representatives-on-mission Mainly Jacobin deputies from the convention, who were sent to the provinces to reassert government authority. Had almost unlimited powers- most become violent over time.
- 4th May 1793 A maximum price for grain, fixed by the CPS- a demand of the urban sans-culottes. The Girondins opposed it in principle (also partly counter-constructive, since there’s no motivation to grow for a low price). Rationing Cards Issued to ensure fair distribution of meat and bread.
- A Compulsory Loan May 1793 Imposed on the wealthy. It also decreed that the property of all émigrés was to be confiscated- they were to be executed if they returned to France.
- Commitées de Surveillance Set up in each commune and major towns to watch foreigners and suspected traitors. Extensive powers allowed them to try, without jury or appeal, and execute armed rebels within 24 hours.
6
Things to consider with regard to the new measures:
- The Girondins were still in control of France at this point. However, the new wartime legislation was a blow to them: it gave power to the sans-culottes, with whom they had never been popular and who they feared as now too radical. The Jacobins thus had an opportunity.
- The Girondins tried to pass laws limiting the powers of the Paris Commune, as well as their attacks on the sans-culottes as ‘buveurs du sang’ (drinkers of blood), upset both the sans-culottes and the extremists who saw the Girondins as too moderate and responsible for the failures of the war.
- Robespierre, the leader of the radical Jacobins, encouraged the sans-culottes to act for Jacobin political advantage, providing leadership at the expense of their rival Girondins. However, he remained in the background to avoid accusation of despotism, and because he was not part of the government.
- On the 2nd June 1793, encouraged by Robespierre, 80 000 National Guards surrounded the Convention and demanded the expulsion of the Girondins. Twenty nine Girondin deputies and two ministers were arrested.
– Since their rivals had been removed, the Jacobin Montagnards now dominated control, including the CPS- which Robespierre joined in July. Under his leadership, radical decisions were easily taken.
- However there were no clear distinctions between the roles of the new emergency bodies such as the CPS and revolutionary armies. They each acted as they saw fit, without overall coherence, leading to the ‘anarchic Terror’ of July-December 1793.
7
The Development of the Terror - POLITICAL
- Assert control over France, particularly in turbulent areas like the Vendee and against the anti-Jacobin federalist movement. Consolidate power and remove opponents. Protect the Republic and improve progress in the war (France declared war on most of the major European powers, including Britain and Austria in early 1793).
- For Robespierre, the enforcement of vertu: good moral values. Movements against the Girondins. Suspension of the new constitution until peacetime by the CPS in October 1793 to ‘help the war effort’. Suspicion and laws against anyone suspected of being against the revolution. The death penalty became widespread- the official execution toll was 16 600 people, not counting deaths from imprisonment, military moves etc.
- The Law of Suspects (September 1793) enabled local communes to arrest and hold without trial indefinitely anyone suspected of counter revolutionary activity. Up to 0.5 million were arrested and 10 000 died in prison. - Increasing radicalism. The policy of representatives-on-mission placed Jacobins in control of rebellious provinces and the Law of Suspects enabled local communes led by fanatical Montagnards to be purged of local administrators in favour sans-culotte militants. - Show trials, such as that of Marie Antoinette (16th October), 20 leading Girondin deputies (31st October) These removed counter revolutionary figureheads and were popular with the masses, as well as establishing reason to obey! -
Repressive response to provincial rebellion. Most of the provinces- particularly in the north-west and south east- erupted during July-August 1793 following the execution of the king. For example, in the Vendee- a very Catholic area in Western France- royalist local nobles led peasants angry at the Church reforms and the land tax (higher now than under the Ancien Regime). To massacre officials, National Guards and constitutional priests. 30 000 soldiers left the front to deal with rebellions.
- Control was regained by the end of 1793 but a period of harsh repression followed, from January-May 1794, labelled ‘pacification’. Across France peasants were shot, farms burnt, animals killed and women raped. The worst horrors were perpetrated by representatives on mission and revolutionary armées encouraged by the Government: for example, in Nantes, 1800 were placed on barges in the Loire, which were then sunk.
ü Provincial rebellion prevented. ü Government control asserted.
û Unacceptable on humanitarian grounds (some see it as genocide). û Creates further fear and counter-revolution.
4
The Development of the Terror - ECONOMIC
- Keep the sans-culottes happy and placated in order to prevent violence. To provide food for the poor, who were now State rather than Church responsibility. Severe laws were introduced including the death penalty for hoarding, a compulsory loan for the wealthy and the Maximum.
- The revolutionary armies seized grain for the government but became out of control. - Measures such as the compulsory loan and the sale of émigré lands and property were intended to prop up the economy and regain popular support.
ü Parisians get fed (in the short term) ü Sales of land and the Maximum gain support.
û People stop growing excess- not worth it. û Hoarding does not stop altogether Solve the ongoing economic crisis. û Control of revolutionary armies lost.
5
The Development of the Terror - RELIGIOUS
- Consolidate power. Ensure loyalty to France via dechristianisation. Christianity was a symbol of before the revolution. Institute a worship of Reason.
- The Commune aimed to destroy religious and royal statues and change religious street names; they banned the wearing of clerical dress, stopped paying clerical salaries (May 1793) and closed all Parisian Churches (November 1793), except Notre Dame which became the Temple of Reason.
- A law was passed stating any priest denounced by six revolutionary-calendar following citizens could be deported. In the long term, 20 000 priests abdicated whilst 6-9000 were coerced to marry. Many abandoned their pastoral duties altogether, whilst some went on covertly. The Catholic Church was persecuted across France.
- By Easter 1794 there were very few churches left and by the end of the decade only 30 000 priests remained. The Parisian sans-culottes were supportive. Robespierre tried to encourage religious tolerance.
- The rural conservative peasants resented this attack on their faith, which was a central part of rural life. Their anger and suspicion led to mass uprisings and unrest. Religious tolerance did not happen. People reverted as soon as possible!
2
The end of the Terror
- The Terror continued under Robespierre’s leadership but his popularity was steadily decreasing as the Revolution began to “consume its own”.
- Suspicions had grown so that ‘the people’ were the main victims, whilst intellectuals such as Danton were beginning to question its necessity, since control had been asserted and the war effort was improving
5
Who would want to overthrow Robespierre?
- Catholics - Upset by the ‘civic religion’ of the Cult of the Supreme Being (7th May 1794). - More monarchist?
- Anti-Clericals - Fear the reintroduction of Roman Catholicism and feel Robespierre is setting himself up as a high priest of the new religion.
- Sans-Culottes - The execution of the Hebertistes (proto-communists under whose Commune wages had risen, March 24th 1794) and of Danton (orator calling for the end of the Terror, 5th April 1794) lost him support. - Upset by the imposition of the Maximum on wages and inflation. - Upset by the dissolution of the popular societies and the end of direct democracy.
- CPS/CGS - The two committees were feuding but each had their own reason to dislike Robespierre. - The CGS disliked the CPS police bureau under him, which they felt rivalled and interfered with their own control of internal security. - The CPS were suspicious of the Cult and Robespierre. Some disliked certain new laws. Billaud and Collot felt threatened, since they were friends of Hebert.
- The Convention - Starting to turn against the Terror and feel it unnecessary. Dislike Robespierre’s policies. - Scared of he might accuse them
3
The Thermidorian Regime?
- Those who overthrew Robespierre were known as the Thermidorians after the month in which the coup occurred. The Thermidorians were a mixed group – members of the two great committees [the Committee of Public Safety (CPS) and the committee for General Security (GGC), ex-terrorists and deputies of the Plain. The Plain now emerged from obscurity to take control. It was made up of the men who had gained from the Revolution by buying biens nationaux (land) or by obtaining government contracts. As regicides these men were firmly attached to the Republic and did not want to see the return of any form of monarchy. They also disliked the Jacobins, who had given too much power to the sans-culottes and had interfered with a free market through the Maximum laws. For them popular democracy, anarchy and they Terror were synonymous.
- After the Coup of Thermidor and the fall of Robespierre, government was reorganised in an attempt to prevent dictatorship. The instruments of the Terror were dismantled: the Jacobin Club was closed in November 1794, the Commune abolished and moderation and freedoms restored.
- The New Constitution of Year III was issued in August 1795 and set up the Directory
3
What was the White Terror?
- The White Terror of 1795 was a reaction against the revolution- those who had profited (land purchasers, constitutional clergy and officials) and the Parisian sans-culottes were attacked by the angry and the aggrieved; there was particular violence in the west and the Vendée.
- In Paris jeunesse doré (gilded youth) and muscadins (extravagant middle class youths) attacked Jacobins and sans-culottes.
- On the 5th of October 1795 (13 Vendémiare), 25 000 armed Parisians- including factory and property owners, civil servants and sans-culottes- marched on the Convention in protest against the new Constitution, in what was described by contemporaries as a royalist rising. They were resisted by government troops, led by the young Napoleon Bonaparte, who killed over 300 with a “whiff of grapeshot”. This was the last attempt to intimidate an elected assembly until 1830.
2
How was the Directory set up?
- 5 Directors serve 5 years. 1 must be replaced every year (chosen by lot). Chosen by the Ancients from a list drawn up by the 500. Carry out laws, appoint ministers and government commissioners. Cannot sit in the councils. (Originally- Carnot, Barras, Reubell, Letourneur and La Revelliere-Lepeaux- who all voted for regicide)
- Council of 500 - Introduce/write new laws. 2/3 deputies in the first councils to be chosen from the Convention to prevent a royalist reaction. 1/3 to retire per year. Annual elections. Council of Ancients Pass/veto laws but cannot change them. Electors 30 000 rich men. All males over 21 who pay direct taxes vote for electors
5
Strengths of the Directory
- Prevents the concentration of power in one group and so prevents a new dictator.
- Checks and balances.
- Reassuring to those who suffered the Terror?
- Joint responsibility?
- Fresh ideas?
3
Problems with the Directory
- The elaborate system of checks and balances relied on cooperation between the groups, making government difficult and arguments paralysing.
- Since no one person was in charge, there was political stalemate and a lack of leadership. The Directory, for example, could create laws but could not force their passing, or even speak in the councils to encourage it.
- Any attempt to make change was slow and bureaucratic.
3
Threats to the Directory
- The war, economic crisis, political disagreement and the legacy of the Terror were all problems for the Directory.
- The Directory survived economically through short term measures and the unpopular restoration of some indirect taxation. It also relied on foreign plunder from the French army (especially Italy and Germany). The now worthless Assignats were discontinued in February 1796 and replaced, though the new currency also failed, as did government rentes (investments).
- There was also an increase in royalist reaction and the continued presence of left wing extremism.
3
The Babeuf Plot
May 1796
- The left wing extremist Gracchus Babeuf plotted the overthrow of the Directory.
- Little success. Had little popular support.
- He was a primitive communist who wanted the abolition of private property after a ‘Conspiracy of Equals’, a rising by a small group of well-disciplined revolutionaries. Babeuf was guillotined in 1797.
4
Coup of Fructidor
September 1797
- Constitutional royalists were gaining support and the Directory feared for their majority.
- Apathy with the war led to the likely election of the royalist majority.
- Two Republican Directors commanded Napoleon and troops to round up relevant Directors and sympathetic deputies, émigrés and refractory priests. These were exiled. - Election results were quashed.
- Dealt with the problem but badly. The Directory lose support. A larger scale of threat. A royalist majority would have impact on policy and France’s future. The Republicans and Revolutionaries would lose control. Only a perceived likelihood?
2
Coup of Floreal
May 1798
- The (left wing) Jacobins won almost a third of all seats- not enough to be a threat- but the Directors again overturned the election.
- It then struggled to ensure the re-election of its candidates. Enough to cause trouble for concerted strength but still could be overruled. - A second unconstitutional action and failure to maintain order, was unpopular and resisted. Order collapsing.
2
Napoleon’s importance and fame during revolutionary France
Napoleon was a Corsican and a minor aristocrat without much money or a particularly prestigious future until the revolution. This provided him with the chance to rise.
He first came to fame in the siege of Toulon 12th December 1793 when the city fell benefitted Napoleon:
- He was promoted to Brigadier-General
- Success brought him the attention of powerful men in Paris
- He demonstrated his skills as a commander
7
Napoleon rise to fame
- He returned to command an artillery unit on the Italian border but when this duty ended he was unemployed and set off for Paris in 1795.
- On arrival he had a stormy meeting with the Minister of war who had offered him an infantry brigade to command but Napoleon refused, wanting to remain with the artillery and he was sent on leave without pay.
- A crisis emerged and this was to become Napoleon’s golden opportunity. A group of disaffected Republicans supported by some Royalists started to openly plan a coup and took over the general assembly. Riots broke out and General Menou commanding the Paris garrison failed to disperse the mobs.
- Rumours started to spread that the Army was siding with the rebels and the politicians started to panic. On 13th October 1795 Barras asked Napoleon to take command. This was a turning point in Napoleon’s career -he agreed.
- By morning troops were quickly arriving in Paris and now with his guns Napoleon went to meet the rebel forces that were marching on Tuileries in two columns. He fired on them and the danger to the government was averted though at the cost of 35 civilian lives.
- The next day Napoleon was promoted to General de Division (Major-General). He was a hero and had huge popular support at the age of 26.
- Napoleon was delighted when he was appointed Commander of the Army of Italy in March 1796 as he had already drawn up plans to attack Austria via Italy. The government approved this plan. On 11th March he left for the border as Austrian troops were already gathering there, two days before he married Josephine.
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The Coup of Brumaire (the end of the Directory)
(get quizzed on revision booklet pic for Directory booklet)
- Napoleon returned to Paris in August and despite his failure in Egypt was welcomed by the Directory- particularly the Director Abbe Sieyès (which by some accounts invited him), who wanted to enable firm decisions by changing the constitution, for which they need a strong general and army.
- On the 9th November (18 Brumaire), the Deputies were bribed so that the two Councils moved to the Parisian suburb of St Cloud ‘for safety’ (i.e. Away from radical crowds). Napoleon’s brother Lucien was elected President of the 500 and Napoleon took control of the 10 000 strong Paris garrison. Amongst the Councils there were rumours of plots against the Republic.
- On the 10th November, Napoleon tried to take the initiative. He spoke first to the Council of the Ancients, - there is controversy over how well Napoleon spoke: he claimed he made an impassioned defence of liberty but, as a known bad speaker, it is likely he rambled.
He then spoke to the 500, who greeted him with cries of ‘outlaw the dictator!’- Lucien did his best to keep order but Napoleon had to be dragged away (it was claimed ‘from assassins’) by soldiers.
- Lucien informed the soldiers outside that his brother had been attacked and ordered the expulsion of the Council from the building. When they met again, for the last time, only about 100 remained. Lucien ensured they agreed to the abolition of the Directory and the institution of Napoleon, Sieyès and Ducos as ‘Consuls’.
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February 1800 Plebiscite
Held to demonstrate support for the new constitution. Probably an attempt to seek legitimacy.
- Officially the vote was 3 million for to 1500 against.
- There is debate as to whether this was wholly fixed, pressured or free. Many argue that people were apathetic and that it was likely few voted and only 20% actually approved.
- The army voted ‘yes’ as a body without a choice, though Napoleon was popular in that quarter anyway.
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Plebiscite on Consul for Life, 1802 and How secure was Napoleon’s position in 1802?
- A plebiscite grants Napoleon the position of Consul for Life and the right to nominate his own successor.
- Like a King but he gets to choose who comes next!
- Napoleon’s position was very secure as he had enforced a system wholly dependent on and supportive of himself. The First Consul controlled all state machinery and the 1802 plebiscite secured this role for him also.
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Napoleon and Opposition, 1800-4: Securing Position
Napoleon used both repression and reform to secure himself, though as his power grew, he favoured the former.
- The left-wing republicans received no tolerance. He used the threat of an assassination attempt to weaken them. On 24th December 1800, a bomb attempt on Napoleon’s life as he travelled to the Opera failed. Though it was a royalist inspired plot, Napoleon deported 129 Jacobin leaders and arrest others. Radical opposition did not abate but Napoleon could then infiltrate clubs and associations with informers. Radical opposition eventually became extremely difficult and dangerous.
- Minor concessions were used to influence the royalists. An amnesty was offered in January 1800 for those who laid down their arms. Religious concessions such as allowing Sunday worship and the Concordat (see below) and promises to end laws against the émigrés. However, after the armistice, he ordered royalist rebellions (e.g. Chouan rebels in Brittany, 1800) to be crushed with the utmost severity. After April 1800 there were no other large-scale uprisings. Other royalists were forced into exile and potential troublemakers were harshly dealt with (e.g. kidnap and murder of Duc d’Enghien, 1804).
- Censorship and alterations to the constitution controlled the liberals. They struggled to coordinate opposition without communication or influence. The Concordat and wooing of the biens nationaux, as well as the promise of social and economic stability won them to his cause, since they feared the loss of their lands under either a royalist or Jacobin revival.
- By 1814, only 2500 people were in prison for political offences.
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Securing power: Napoleon’s reforms and Patronage and Honours
- A powerful, centralised state apparatus was developed to run France.
Napoleon created a system of recognition similar to the nobility of the Ancien Regime. It is debated if this was to recognise and reward merit, creating stability and encouraging loyalty to the system, or bribery and personal patronage (e.g. personal interest in candidates).
- Honours included:
o The Legion of Honour (1802) which was mainly awarded for distinguished military service, although some citizens also received it.
o Senators (1804) had large salaries, palaces and lands granted to them and were all appointed by Napoleon.
o Imperial Nobility and Court Positions were created 1804-1808. 4/5 were given to the military, some with large estates and salaries. Post-1808 a new Imperial Nobility was created of around 3600 people, with territories in conquered territories, linking their futures to the Empire.
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Financial Reforms:
Some of the reforms introduced were: a much clearer division of roles between the ministry of finances and the treasury; the reorganisation of both direct and indirect tax collection; the first steps in establishing a public banking system; the bank of France, and a new currency, the franc. As Napoleon himself lacked the technical skills to overhaul the financial system he appointed a number of very able ministers. Among the key appointments was Gaudin, who was appointed Minister of Finances in 1799.
Did the economy grow under Napoleon?
- Overall, the French economy did not grow in a sustained manner under Napoleon, though there were some improvements.
- Its birth rate was falling and the war (up to the Russian campaign) removed about a third of potential fathers (early 20s).
- Capital was in short supply and Mechanisation was scare.
- Poor communication meant the market created by the Continental System (see below) was not exploited and existing industries remained small-scale.
- Industrial wages declined below rising prices and taxes.
- However, food production did increase until 1811, though this was more due to good harvests and increased acreage than advancements. Some areas of the chemical industry improved and warfare did stimulate demand for iron, though charcoal smelting was outdated.
- There were fewer riots- in part due to Napoleon’s popularity and military successes- which meant that economic problems were less noticeable. Some provision was made for hardship, especially in Paris.
Censorship and Propaganda:
Napoleon restricted the number of political journals; in 1800 he restricted the number of political journals from 73 to nine, and banned the production of any new ones. The surviving ones were kept short of reliable news and were not allowed to discuss controversial subjects. Publishers were required to send two copies of every book, prior to publication, to police headquarters. In 1810 a regular system of censors was set up. More than half the printing presses in Paris were shut down, and publishers were forced to take an oath of loyalty to the government.
Policing:
The police acted as trained spies, imposed censorship, set up surveillance, searched for army deserters and organised raids on areas believed to be sheltering enemy agents. They were assisted in the maintenance of the law and order by a well-organised body of gendarmes. Reports were submitted to Napoleon daily by Fouché on the work of his department. Napoleon also introduced prefects, who nominated local officials such as mayors. They also collected taxes and enforced conscription, as well as spreading propaganda, monitor public opinion in their areas and report on any suspicious political activity.
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Education:
- Education for ordinary people was a simple “moral education” and basic literacy and numeracy. This was provided in primary schools run by the Church, the local community, or individuals. Napoleon introduced lycées, staffed by instructors chosen by Napoleon. The places were almost entirely restricted to the sons of notables. The government-appointed teachers would deliver a common syllabus from identical textbooks. The curriculum was closely controlled: history, maths, French, science, geography, military values and loyalty. Research for its own sake was not given attention, as it seemed unimportant, even in Science.
- He opened the Imperial University in 1806 which was tightly controlled and provided loyal teachers for State secondary schools.
- Ordinary children were taught obedience and morals. Notables’ sons aimed for state service, primarily military.
- There was no provision for girls, as Napoleon believed too much education would prejudice them in a society where their role was to marry and bear children.
- Napoleon’s control of teachers allowed him to direct political and moral opinions across the country.
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Religious Reforms and the Concordat (1801)
Aims
Resolve religious conflict (including protests in the Vendee).
- To ally himself with popular and traditional belief (remove Church-Ancien Regime bond), gaining popularity and possibly legitimacy and continuity.
- Stability and loyalty.
- Win support of the clergy and remove support from/for refractory priests.
- Under the Directory, Catholic worship was already becoming more open. Napoleon could easily recognise and legalise this.
- In 1800, a new Pope, Pius VII, was elected. This provided an opportunity to make a deal.
- NB. The presence of French armies in Italy may also be an influence.
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The Concordat, 1801
- The Pope was recognised as the Head of the Catholic Church.
- The state would pay the clergy’s salaries and make senior appointments (e.g. bishops).
- The Catholic clergy would obey the state, by oath. The Church would not try to regain Revolution-confiscated lands. The police would supervise services.
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The Organic Articles, 1802
- These ratified and emphasised the agreements of the Concordat, particularly the state control of the clergy. For example, priests were to be considered salaried officials whilst papal legislation required government approval before it was published.
- The Articles also dictated that citizens be instructed “the God of peace is also the God of war, and that he fights on the side of those who defend the independence and liberty of France,” being sure that religion forged a link with the interests of the country. NB the ongoing European wars of the period.
- To the Pope’s dismay, the also guaranteed religious tolerance for Protestants and Jews.
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How did the Concordat benefit Napoleon?
- Gains support from the biens nationaux (property safe) and removes Catholic support from the Royalists,
- Underpins stability- stops religious unrest and guarantees Revolutionary change.
- Pope’s recognition of Napoleon adds legitimacy and clarity to his position.
- Bishops used as state agents, influencing behaviour and adding to propaganda. Being their employer might make them loyal.
- Control of the potentially dangerous influence of the Church in France.
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Further Religious Points of Interest
- 1804 Pope attends Napoleon’s coronation as Emperor.
- 1806 Napoleon personally standardises and changes Church catechisms to revolve around the Emperor not the Church (e.g. ‘Why are we bound in these duties to our Emperor? …to honour and serve the Emperor is to honour and serve God himself’). Propaganda equates Napoleon with God. Without reference to the Pope, the 16th of August is declared St Napoleon’s Day. All of these things anger Pius VII.
- 1808 Pope imprisoned and the Papal States annexed by France.
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Was the Consulate a Dictatorship? - YES
- Prefects’ spying and control roles.
- Excess of propaganda.
- Control of the church.
- Repression of all opposition.
- Cult of ego/self- loyalty to Napoleon not state.
- Powerlessness of other bodies and the voters.
- Elements of royalty: First Consul for Life- benefits
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Was the Consulate a Dictatorship? - NO
- Stability- France needs a firm leadership and a strong figurehead.
- Administrative role of the Prefects.
- Popular support.
- Loyalty vital for France’s survival; cannot afford the unsettling presence of rebels.
- Concordat defends France and the gains of the Revolution.
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Napoleon becomes Emperor, May 1804
- An assassination scare- a supposed plot by the Duc d’Enghien (Bourbon), of which the details remain hazy- provides an excuse for change.
- Napoleon’s loyal supporters in the Senate decree that Napoleon should be made hereditary Emperor of France. This is confirmed by plebiscite. ‘King’ is rejected as having too many Ancien Regime associations.
- A magnificent coronation was attended by the Pope, though it was Napoleon who placed the crowns on his and his wife’s heads.
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Napoleon’s Military Achievements - Italy 1796-7
- AIMS - Gain territory and plunder (help economy, pay troops) - Defeat/distract Austria (gateway) - Gain military glory and fame (beginning of legend) - Control of the Mediterranean?
- EVENTS Napoleon arrived to control “experienced and hardened campaigners”. Within a month he had occupied Piedmont, entering Lombardy in May 1796. By February 1797, he had captured all of Northern Italy. He then entered Austria. The Treaty of Campo Formio, October 1797, awarded territorial gains and the creation of ‘Republics’.
- ACHIEVED - Gained Northern Italy. - Came within 60 miles of Vienna before offering peace terms.
- NAPOLEON ü Seen as a huge military success- Napoleon as commander was given a hero’s welcome in Paris. ü Made peace with the Austrians on his own initiative. ü An Austrian envoy said “Only he can make peace, and he can do it on any terms he wants.”
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Napoleon’s Military Achievements - EGYPT, 1798-9 (to 1801 for troops)
- AIMS - Gain territory, plunder and glory. - Attack British trading and routes to India. The Directory need to keep the ambitious general busy (i.e. Out of politics)
- EVENTS Napoleon was sent to invade Egypt with the Army of the Orient. Nelson destroyed the French fleet at Aboukir Bay in July 1798. Napoleon distinguished himself at the Battle of the Pyramids and quickly occupied Egypt. The advance into Syria, however, was a failure. Half of the army was lost before the retreat. Napoleon returned to France in August 1799. The army survived alone until their defeat by the British in 1801.
- ACHIEVED ü Gain Egypt and glory. û Syria a loss, men die and were abandoned. The British were not defeated. NAPOLEON ü Still given a hero’s welcome and glory.
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Impact on Napoleon’s Power
- Controls mainland Europe.
- Seen as a successful leader.
- Gains patriotic popularity and propaganda value.
- Helps and protects France with defeat of enemies and gain of territory.
- Risks creating dependency on success?
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What effect did the Continental System have?
- The Continental System, introduced in 1806 in the Berlin Decrees, was the prohibition of British goods from French territories (i.e. eventually most of Europe). It was intended to weaken Britain by disrupting trade as well as protecting France’s markets.
- The system succeeded in damaging Britain- by 1810 its exports were declining and it was short of gld for imports- but its economy was able to withstand the strain.
- There were also other benefits for France, namely a huge protected market for industries. In some areas, such as Strasbourg and Marseilles, trade with Germany, Italy and the east improved. Luxury good production developed in Paris and Lyons.
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What effect did the Continental System have? - FLAWS
However the system was flawed:
- Trade disruption also damaged France.
- It proved impossible to enforce- especially as the Empire expanded and following the French defeat at Trafalgar (1805). Smuggling was commonplace.
- Demand did not increase.
- Limiting trade damaged the shipbuilding and linen industries disastrously.
- Resentment of the system contributed to the growth of nationalist and other opposition.
- Attempts to extend the system into Spain and Russia may have aided the collapse of the Empire.
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Did Napoleon continue or betray the principles of the Revolution? - ADMIN
EVIDENCE FOR CONTINUING
Administrative Directory members remain in power. Meritocratic elements (e.g. Prefects) Gendarmes keep order.
EVIDENCE FOR BETRAYAL
Increased surveillance. Government appointment not elections. Subservience to First Consul. Centralisation?
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Did Napoleon continue or betray the principles of the Revolution? - LEGAL
EVIDENCE FOR CONTINUING
Legal Rational and uniform Civil Code 1804. Legalises earlier changes. ‘Partage’ is equal, if a bad idea.
EVIDENCE FOR BETRAYAL
Male dominance. Livret- control. Return of harsh punishments and arbitrary arrest, loss of right of appeal. Censorship and police repression. Judges appointed for life.
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Did Napoleon continue or betray the principles of the Revolution? - EDUCATION
EVIDENCE FOR CONTINUING
Meritocratic elements. Other schools?
EVIDENCE FOR BETRAYAL
Not free. Emphasis on obedience. Government controls. Aimed at military production.
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Did Napoleon continue or betray the principles of the Revolution? - FINANCE
EVIDENCE FOR CONTINUING
Continental system aids France and spreads revolution? Taxes fund defence? Accountability and organisation?
EVIDENCE FOR BETRAYAL
Continental System- aids dictatorship? Helps bourgeoisie? Centralisation and state control of bank?
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Arguments for developing the revolution
Stability.
- An Enlightened despot: rationality, uniform legal system, tolerance. For the benefit of the people.
- Meritocratic appointments. DOYLE: Napoleon’s regime is different and stronger than Louis XVI’s- less church influence and more efficient/. Some personnel remain in office.
- Continues bourgeoisie involvement- as in the initial revolution
- Understands the importance of food and public approval (if not involvement). - Still used ‘Republic’? - Personal romantic view of role? - Makes forces of revolution useful? Wins wars, makes France function.
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Arguments for destroying the revolution
- A hereditary Emperor not a democracy- a dictatorship.
- Corrupt control: rigged plebiscites, bypassed elected bodies. - Police surveillance, harsh punishments, state control, focus on obedience.
- Wealth governs (like initial revolution?)
- Disrespect for women.
- Unequal taxation.
- Reinstatement of church and a nobility resembles the Ancien Regime. - Motives not altruistic?
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Why did the Empire Fall?
- British and her sea-power
- The devastating defeat in Russia.
- Diplomatic and military mistakes by a physically and mentally declining commander.
- A real upsurge of popular resentment against French tyranny.
- The overstretching of the resources of France.
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The Basis of French Military Success to 1807 - Weakness of Enemies/Coalitions
- Allies rely on ageing 18th century generals and slow, predictable, formal linear tactics. Troops are raised by antiquated conscription and taxation.
- Troops tend to be static, less men and poorer quality.
- Enemies fail to pool resources and often argue over strategy (infighting). Fail to work together: In 1806, the Prussians advanced at Jena without waiting for the Russians, at a huge loss.
- Monarchs interfere with decision making. - Allies repeatedly sacrifice common good to self interest. In 1805, Prussian neutrality in return for Hanover allowed the defeat of Austria; in 1807, 120 000 Austrians were too timid to help Russia and in 1807, Russia protected herself with the Treaty of Tilsit. Napoleon encourages separation. - General lack of enthusiasm.
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Other points
- FURET: Napoleon continued the off course despotism of the Convention after the monarchy’s abolition.
- Continued conquests (ruled against in 1791) though the Directory did this too. - Modified only when threated him.
- ‘Revolutionary’ history- involvement with Robespierre, entanglement in conflicts. - Military background influences approach?
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The Basis of French Military Success to 1807 - Military Tactics/Ability
- Allies misjudge Napoleon. In 1805, the best Austrian troops and commander were sent to Northern Italy but he invaded Germany, which was too far west for the Russians to support.
- Napoleon’s Grand Army is hardened and confident, using recently perfected tactics. It is also larger, conscription and accepting volunteers from France’s 28 million strong population and the Empire.
- Revolutionary reforms made the army into efficient corps rather than one body.
- Napoleon is a far superior commander. - Napoleon’s tactics are more flexible.
- Some weaponry advantages such as better gun carriages. Improved horse artillery and shifted heavy cannons to separate regiments.
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The Basis of French Military Success to 1807 - Napoleon’s Myth of Invincibility
- Fanned by propaganda, this encourages troops and deters enemies from fighting him, making them more inclined to sign treaties. Possible influence on Tilsit.
- Created through Napoleon’s sole control of military affairs and reputation as a war hero. - He edits war accounts and releases an official paper, Le Moniteur
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The Basis of French Military Success to 1807 - Total Control over France
- One national army not requiring distant co-ordination.
- Mass control of all elements of France. - All resources can be funnelled to the military. - One aim and all organisation by one person. No conflicts or shared interests.
- Revolutionary reforms have made the French state more efficient and resources readily available. - Domestic reforms create a soldier factory?
The Basis of French Military Success to 1807 - Loyalty of troops/Nationalist and Revolutionary energies
Released from the Revolution, French nationalism created willing and motivated troops as well as a justification for the war. - Use of the ideology ‘spreading the Revolution’. - Troops idealised Napoleon as a national hero as well as a successful commander and fought loyally for him. He deliberately cultivated his men, visiting them before and after battles, offering rewards like the Legion of Honour and travelling with them (personal involvement). - Previous involvement with the Revolution gives him legitimacy.
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The Basis of French Military Success to 1807 - Defeat of Austria
- Defeated three times in total. - 1797, leads to the Treaty of Campo Formio, which preserves French conquests and leaves only Britain as an enemy.
- 1801, Treaty of Luneville follows defeat at Marengo removes all Austria’s Italian lands. - October 1805, forces a surrender at Ulm then defeat at Austerlitz of an Austro-Russian force; humiliating 1806 Treaty of Pressburg which forces them to recognise all their losses of territory and German territorial rearrangement.
- Defeats an enemy, upset coalition, secures assets, adds to legend and gains him acknowledgement as a leader. - The Prussians were similarly destroyed in 1806 at the battle of Jean-Auerstadt. Tilsit left them abandoned, with French occupation, a 42 000 men army limit and a harsh indemnity.
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The Basis of French Military Success to 1807 - Treaty of Tilsit
(1807)
- In February 1807, Napoleon marched through Poland to attack Russia. He had already defeated Austria and Prussia. He won an indecisive victory during a blizzard at Eylau.
- In June, the Russians put up a good fight at Friedland but Napoleon wins. In July, Russia sought peace and at a meeting on a raft on the River Niemen (the Russian border). This is the Peace of Tilsit. Alexander I is charmed by Napoleon. - France and Russia become allies with different ‘spheres of interest’. The Russians accept the French creation of a Duchy of Warsaw in Poland and the territorial changes in Europe; Russia is given a free hand to expand into Turkey and Finland, as well as taking part of Prussia. The Treaty shattered the Third Coalition, leaving only Britain at war. It also brought Austria, Russia, Denmark, Sweden and Portugal officially under the Continental System.
Why might Napoleon be regarded as not entirely brilliant? - His strength is based on inherited armies:
- 1793’s ‘levee en masse’ large-scale conscription produced millions of soldiers, whilst the 28 million population and annexed/satellite states gave him huge reserves.
- Motivation of defending French liberation/nationalism vital.
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Why might Napoleon be regarded as not entirely brilliant? - Weaponry and training did not improve rapidly.
- Infantry continue to rely on slow and inaccurate muzzle loading muskets.
- Artillery tends to miss targets above half a mile and takes ages to reload.
- Conscripts – a week’s basic training then a forced march to the site.
- Owes many tactics to Jacques, Comte de Guibert (though this does not rule out his own ability or the personal loyalty he commanded).
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Why might Napoleon be regarded as not entirely brilliant? - Made mistakes:
- Inadequate planning (‘flexible’).
- Lack of system or discipline away from the battlefield led to pillaging.
- Plans to live off the land can leave army badly supplies.
- Close runs: lack of sufficient troops,
- Lack of understanding of geography, weather and naval matters.
- 1805: planned an invasion of Britain and let thousands of troops sit there until August, when he decided to march into Europe instead. Britain is still far superior on the seas. The Battle of Trafalgar destroyed most of the navy and helped rule out an invasion.
