For exam, lecture 3

Question 1

when did the Pleistocene Epoch last

Answer 1

from between 1.8 mya- 12 kya

Question 2

what are the divisions of the Pleistocene Epoch

Answer 2

lower
middle
upper

Question 3

how long did the lower Pleistocene last

Answer 3

1.8 mya - 780 kya

Question 4

what is the lower Pleistocene characterized by

Answer 4

steadily decreasing global temperatures

Question 5

when the did middle Pleistocene happen

Answer 5

780 cya - 126 kya

Question 6

what is the middle Pleistocene characterized by

Answer 6

generally low, yet wildly fluctuating temperatures

Question 7

when did the upper Pleistocene happen

Answer 7

126 cya - 12 kya

Question 8

what is the upper Pleistocene characterized by

Answer 8

corresponding to the end of the last major ice age

Question 9

Earth’s glacial and interglacial periods within the Late Pleistocene have been caused primarily by what

Answer 9

cyclical changes in the Earth’s circumnavigation of the Sun

Question 10

what do the cyclical changes affect

Answer 10

These changes affect the seasonality and location of solar energy around the Earth, thus impacting contrasts between the seasons

Question 11

what are the 3 changes of the cyclical changes

Answer 11

eccentricity
obliquity/ Axial Tilt
precission

Question 12

what are the cyclical cycles called

Answer 12

milankovich cycles

Question 13

what is Eccentricity

Answer 13

changes to the shape of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. Orbital shape ranges between more and less elliptical on a cycle of about 100,000 years. Greater variation in Sun’s energy reaching Earth when orbital shape is more elliptical

Question 14

what are we currently in (which cycle)

Answer 14

in between the stages of eccentricity AND axil tilt

Question 15

what is Axial Tilt

Answer 15

is the inclination of the Earth’s axis in relation to its plane of orbit around the Sun. Oscillations in the degree of Earth’s axial tilt occur on a periodicity of 41,000 years from 21.5 to 24.5 degrees. Affects the severity of the Earth’s seasons

Question 16

what is Precession

Answer 16

is the Earth’s slow wobble as it spins on axis. This wobble has a periodicity of 23,000 years. Contributes to differences in seasons felt by the Northern and Southern hemispheres

Question 17

are H. erectus and H. ergaster the same or different

Answer 17

Until fairly recently, all specimens today classified as H. erectus or H. ergaster were considered a single species: H. erectus (“upright man”); those from outside of Africa still are

Question 18

what led many paleoanthropologists to classify these as members of a separate species(dragster and erectus)

Answer 18

However, some marked morphological differences in the specimens from East and southern Africa have led many paleoanthropologists to classify these as members of a separate species

Question 19

what does H. ergaster mean

Answer 19

working man

Question 20

intros course do we consider eraser and erects the same or different

Answer 20

different
In this course, we will consider these two variants to be separate species; however, the groups are morphologically, behaviorally and (likely) culturally very similar to one another, and share a clear ancestral relationship

Question 21

what is the main difference between erectus and ergaster

Answer 21

Although both H. erectus and H. ergaster appear at around the same time in both Africa and Asia (ca. 1.8 mya), the scholarly assumption is that the origin is Africa, as it’s the only place with a likely bipedal ancestor— H. habilis. However, the closeness of dates poses a problem…

Question 22

What are the Homo ergaster Early Dates (E. and S. Africa)

Answer 22

The earliest confirmed dates for H. ergaster coalesce around 1.8 mya.
Fossil specimens come from several sites in Kenya, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Swartkrans, South Africa

Question 23

The finds in Kenya indicate H. ergaster and H. habilis may have overlapped by around how many years

Answer 23

500,000 years

Question 24

The early H. ergaster fossils are occasionally associated with what

Answer 24

Oldowan tools

Question 25

what are the Homo erectus Early Dates (Europe / Asia)

Answer 25

H. erectus georgicus appears at the crossroads of Europe and Asia (Dmanisi, modern–day Republic of Georgia) 1.78 mya

Question 26

what is the cc of the Dmanisi fossils compare to the other H. erectus / ergaster

Answer 26

brains that were unusually small (~600 cc) compared to all other H. erectus / ergaster individuals (between ~850 –1100 cc).

Question 27

what is the problem of Homo erectus / ergaster Origins

Answer 27

The problem is one of distance and time. The Dmanisi and Javan H. erectus specimens don’t differ significantly either morphologically (as we’ll see) or temporally from the earliest H. ergaster specimens in Africa. Thus, the presumed emigration of H. ergaster out of Africa could only have occurred if…
1. A few or all of the acquired dates are wrong;
2. The expansion out of Africa was a very rapid one;
3. The expansion out of Africa occurred earlier than 1.8 mya and involved H. habilis (!)
None of these scenarios is particularly convincing, and at this point, we simply don’t know the answer.

Question 28

what is the Cranial Morphology of Homo erectus / ergaster

Answer 28

High vault elevation above orbits.
Relatively low post-orbital constriction.
Increasingly robust supraorbital toris
Longitudinal elongation of the skull
Decreased facial prognathism.
Reduction in molar/premolar size and thickness.
cranial capacity between 850 and 1100 cc

Question 29

what is the Post-Cranial Morphology of Homo erectus / ergaster

Answer 29

Postcranial bones of all known H. erectus and H. ergaster individuals show modern H. sapiens body proportions.
Body size was significantly greater than that of H. habilis / H. rudolfensis and generally similar to modern humans (avg. height of between 4’ 9” to 6’ 1”; avg. weight of between 88 and 150 lbs)

Question 30

the 1.5-million-year-old footprints discovered in 2009 at Ileret, Kenya (nearby to Koobi Fora) are likely attributable to what

Answer 30

H. ergaster

The prints show distinctly modern human-like foot anatomy – markedly different from that of the Laetoli footprint-makers.The stride was also similar to that of modern humans

Question 31

is there sexual dimorphism among H. erectus/ergaster

Answer 31

there is still a strong degree of sexual dimorphism among H. erectus/ergaster; males are approximately 25% larger than females.
However, the degree of dimorphism in erectus/ergaster was still ~30% less than that of earlier hominins, such as paranthropines

Question 32

what are the Homo erectus / ergaster Morphological Differences

Answer 32

Variation between only two key physical traits separate the two species:
Slightly more robust supraorbital tori in H. erectus.
Cranial bones are thinner in H. ergaster
Lack of a prominent occipital bun in H. ergaster

The size-related (e.g., H. erectus georgicus) and other morphological differences (e.g., H. ergaster) we have discussed are defined largely by geography, and are evidence that there was—at some point— genetic isolation among H. erectus / ergaster groups. This raises an interesting question: just how much gene flow, if any, was there among these groups?

Question 33

what may the differences between Homo erectus / ergaster be attributable to

Answer 33

These differences may be attributable to environmental / social variation, making H. ergaster simply an earlier / geographically distinct variant (or subspecies) of H. erectus. 
This would lead us to categorise H. erectus as a polytypic species (containing more than one taxonomic rank below)

Question 34

‘Lumpers,’ advocating that the various H. erectus/ergaster groups represent a single polytypic species (H. erectus), argue what

Answer 34

that genetic drift, natural selection and some gene flow among the various H. erectus groups on earth resulted in the morphological differences we see in the fossil record

Question 35

what do splitters argue about H. erectus / ergaster

Answer 35

Splitters’ argue that these difference can be explained through the various groups’ genetic/reproductive isolation (e.g., a founder’s effect), which resulted in distinct subgroups with little-to-no significant gene flow among them

Question 36

We know that anatomically modern humans evolved from H. erectus / ergaster.
If the ‘splitter’ position is true, it means what

Answer 36

that speciation events in one area would not be reflected in another; importantly, it also means our modern human ancestors could only have developed in one of three known areas (Europe/Asia, E. Africa or E./SE Asia)

Question 37

Between 1.8 and 1.6 mya, H. ergaster was utilizing what technology

Answer 37

Oldowan technology

Question 38

what was the diet of . ergaster

Answer 38

They were likely foraging and scavenging, much like H. habilis.

Question 39

when did Acheulean Tradition happen

Answer 39

Around 1.6 mya, a new tool tradition begins in Africa. Known as the Acheulean Tradition

Question 40

what is Acheulean Tradition characterized by

Answer 40

it’s characterized by pear- or teardrop-shaped handaxes. This becomes the dominant form of technology until around 600 kya—making it the longest-lasting tool technique ever utilized

Question 41

when does Acheulean technology reach europe

Answer 41

In SE and E. Asia, the Oldowan-style Chopper Chopping-Tool industry thrives, while Acheulean technology doesn’t reach Europe until between 500 and 800 kya

Question 42

The first uncontested examples of hearths (fire‐pits) for any hominin are found where

Answer 42

at Gesher Benot Ya’aqov, Israel

Question 43

When do the fire pits date to

Answer 43

dating to between 690 and 790 kya, where numerous hearths were found.

Question 44

where is there contested evidence of use of fire

Answer 44

There is, however, contested evidence of use of fire (possibly naturally-produced) by between 1.4 and 1.6 mya (Lower Pleistocene) at two sites in E. Africa

Question 45

what proof of fire was found At Chesowanja, Kenya

Answer 45

51 very small, concentrated flecks of reddish-‐brown clay, fired at 400° C.

Question 46

what species is argued to have used fire first and what evidence is there

Answer 46

At Chesowanja, Kenya, 51 very small, concentrated flecks of reddish-‐brown clay, fired at 400° C. The fragments were were found approximately 15 m from several P. boisei cranial vault fragments and fragmented non-hominin animal bones. Despite this, the researchers argue that H. ergaster was responsible for the fire and animal bone deposits

Question 47

what could be another explanation for the fire

Answer 47

Skeptics argue the concentration of these clay fragments appear to be consistent with a tree stump, burned out by a naturally-occurring brush fire

Question 48

what evidence of fire was found At Koobi Fora

Answer 48

discolored soil patches with Oldowan tools were once exposed to temperatures of between 200 and 400° C. It is unclear whether or not this was the result of natural fires. These patches were dated to between 1.5 and 1.6 mya

Question 49

where was H. erectus pekinensis found

Answer 49

Fossil remains of at least 15 individuals, later designated H. erectus pekinensis (“Peking Man”) were recovered from the site of Zhoukoudian, northern China, in 1921 by Canadian paleoanthropologist Davidson Black

Question 50

when does . erectus pekinensis date back to

Answer 50

The specimens date to between 650 and 780 kya (the end of the Lower Pleistocene).

Question 51

when might have H. erectus pekinensis used fire

Answer 51

770 kya?

Question 52

what evidence and doubt is there of H. erectus pekinensis using fire

Answer 52

Apparent ash layers within the Zhoukoudian cave site may indicate in-situ control of fire. Further, very small, charred animal bone fragments were found within these deposits, indicating cave occupants were cooking.
At this time, northern China would have been very cold, so heating would also have been important, however, much of the material from early excavations was lost during WWII, and evidence remains in doubt

Question 53

what evidence is there of H. Ergaster and fire and cooking

Answer 53

At the very large Wonderwerk Cave site in Northern Cape Province, South Africa, burned bits of animal bone and vegetation (as ash) have been recovered from sediments dating (not very securely) to around 1 mya. These deposits were approximately 30 m from the mouth of the cave, meaning they were likely not carried in by the elements

Question 54

why cook

Answer 54

Cooking meat kills bacteria and parasites, and it detoxifies some vegetables, essentially rendering them edible.
It takes far less energy to digest cooked food than raw food. This likely freed up more energy for the ever-developing brains of our H. erectus ancestors

Question 55

Cooking food correlates with biological changes what

Answer 55

H. erectus / ergaster

Question 56

how does Cooking food correlates with biological changes H. erectus / ergaster

Answer 56

Faster calorie absorption from cooked food results in species-wide growth spurt (increased body size)
Cooked food requires less digestion, so a narrowing in the ribcage and reduction of the intestinal tract
Reduced need for musculature related to chewing, so decreased importance and size of temporal muscles