Exam review, Neanderthals

Question 1

H. neanderthalensis lives when

Answer 1

200 – 30 kya

Question 2

H. neanderthalensis thrived where

Answer 2

thrived in Western Europe and the Middle East (during colder seasons) during the Upper Pleistocene

Question 3

where was H. neanderthalensis found

Answer 3

The earliest evidence for Neanderthals comes from Atapuerca, Spain

Question 4

what is the lumper/splitter debate on H. neanderthalensis

Answer 4

Splitters (long dominant in this debate) argue that Neanderthals comprise a separate species (H. neanderthalensis). Lumpers prefer to classify Neanderthals as a subspecies of modern humans (H. sapiens neanderthalensis).

Question 5

Like Paranthropines, Neanderthals represent an___________

Answer 5

evolutionary dead-end

Question 6

It is now clear that Neanderthals began to diverge from who

Answer 6

. heidelbergensis

Question 7

when did that Neanderthals began to diverge from from H. heidelbergensis

Answer 7

Europe between 600 and 400 kya

Question 8

what were the • These were the first pre-modern human remains to be ultimately recognized as such considered as

Answer 8

The first Neanderthal fossils were discovered in 1856 by German lime miners in a small cave near Düsseldorf. Finds consisted of a large, robust cranium and some associated, similarly – robust post-cranial bones. The workers initially thought them to be cave bear bones.
The original Neanderthal cave site.
• These were the first pre-modern human remains to be ultimately recognized as such. Herman Schaaffhausen, a Bonn University anatomy professor argued that they were ancient, based largely upon their context and mineralization. He believed they belonged to a now “barbarous and savage race” of extinct Germans.

Question 9

what did Early Critiques say about the discovery of the neanderthal bones

Answer 9

The antiquity of these specimens was not universally accepted; Rudolf Virchow, one of Germany’s most prominent biologists argued that the remains represented a diseased modern human.
• Virchow endorsed a widely – disseminated theory put forward by Bonn University biology professor August Mayer that each of the distinct morphological features represented injuries and associated afflictions related to horseback riding
Mayer ultimately concluded that the individual was a Cossack cavalryman from the early 19th century

Question 10

what is the Cranial Morphology of H. neanderthalensis

Answer 10

Cranial capacity is highest among all known hominins (~1500 cc).
• Cranial vault is not well-elevated above the orbits, long and low.
• A strong occipital bun.
• A low degree of postorbital
constriction.
• Very robust supraorbital tori.
• A high degree of mid-facial prognathism and a wide nasal aperture/nose.
• Still no (true) chin!

Question 11

how was the nose an adaption

Answer 11

Large nasal cavity warmed cold air before reaching the lungs and brain?
• HOWEVER, modern humans tend to display the opposite tendancy (long, narrow noses to restrict cold air flow among northern populations, and broad noses to diffuse heat among tropical populations)
• Increased bite force, so more robust mid-face?
• HOWEVER, Paranthropines NOT the most prognathic; robusticity on the temporal (left and right sides) of the face (remember the zygomatic arches!)
• NO good explanation for large nose, textbook suggests genetic drift via isolation (founder’s effect).

Question 12

Post-Cranial Morphology of H. neanderthalensis

Answer 12

Generally, very strongly built; average bone density is around twice that of modern humans.
• Shorter than modern humans; stocky with shorter forearms and lower legs.
• More joint-surface space, indicating heavier weight (likely much more muscular)
Much larger chest cavity.
• Wider pelvis and a longer pelvic bone (where the innominate bones meet).

• Shorter, denser phalanges (finger bones) for grasping.

Question 13

how does H. neanderthalensis

Body Proportions relate to Environment

Answer 13

environmental conditions, particularly temperature, are often directly related to body proportions.
• Bergmann’s rule (which we have seen before) states that warm - blooded organisms in higher (and colder) latitudes are larger and heavier than those closer to the tropics. They retain more body heat per unit of mass.
• Allen’s rule, similarly, states that these higher - latitude organisms will be stockier (with shorter limbs), also allowing for retention of body heat.
• Neanderthals have a body structure combining both of these principles

Question 14

what is Allen’s rule

Answer 14

similarly, states that these higher - latitude organisms will be stockier (with shorter limbs), also allowing for retention of body heat

Question 15

Neanderthals traits become most distinct when

Answer 15

at the beginning of the Upper Pleistocene, just as temperatures around the world begin to drop dramatically. At this time, the majority of continental Europe consisted of taiga (boreal) forests

Question 16

Those Neanderthals living in the Middle East were only doing so when

Answer 16

during the coldest months of the year

Question 17

Neanderthals were a uniquely ____- temperature adapted hominin species

Answer 17

Neanderthals were a uniquely cold- temperature adapted hominin species

Question 18

Within the Neanderthal toolkit, we have a unique body of stone tools known as what

Answer 18

the Mousterian tradition, after the French site Le Moustier, where examples were first found

Question 19

Mousterian tools are associated only with who

Answer 19

Neanderthals

Question 20

what is included in Mousterian tools

Answer 20

consist mainly of hand axes, scrapers, knives, denticulates and points

Question 21

what is Levallois

Answer 21

Makers utilized a prepared core technique known as Levallois, which involved essentially forming the finished flake tool on the core before it’s removed. This involves an impressive amount of forethought and skill

Question 22

how were teeth considered tools of the neanderthals

Answer 22

The incisors and molars of many Neanderthals show evidence of having been used as tools, both to grasp objects while working, or to soften tough hides, as do Inuit when preparing seal and caribou skins for clothing

Question 23

what was the diet of neanderthals

Answer 23

For the first time (as far as we’re aware), hominins were subsisting more on animal resources than vegetation, edible varieties of which were only seasonally available

Hunting of very large game must be done in groups; this requires a significant amount of planning and coordination

Question 24

what is the Archaeological Evidence

for Vegetable Resources for neanderthals

Answer 24

Chemical studies of Neanderthal bones show
they had a predominantly carnivorous diet.
• However, recent study of dental calculus (solidified plaque) on Neanderthal teeth had direct evidence of plant foods.
• At Shanidar (Iraq, a warmer environment), they were eating some legumes, dates, and barley that was “cooked in a wet environment” i.e. baked or boiled. MUCH more sophisticated food preparation than we expected! (No grindstones in Neanderthal technology.)
• At Spy (Belgium, a colder environment) they were eating water lily bulbs. No evidence of cooking there

Question 25

what is Hafting

Answer 25

The process by which an artifact is attached to a haft or handle.
Plant resin used to make adhesive, as evidenced from cave site in Romania (~30 kya)
Traces of bitumen
This is significant because it reflects the Neanderthal capacity to come up with an innovative solution for specific problem, namely finding an adhesive to help in crafting composite weapons

Question 26

did neanderthals use fire

Answer 26

Decades ago, no conclusive evidence that Neanderthals had regular access to fire. This led to popular depictions of Neanderthal fascination with, and reverence for, fire (SEE QUEST FOR FIRE!)
Now, recent study surveys 141 sites with Neanderthal occupation. Evidence for the sustained use of fire includes the presence of charcoal, heated stone artifacts, burned bones, heated sediments, hearths and rough dates obtained from heated stone artifacts.

This premise had long seemed unlikely, given Europe’s climate during the Upper Pleistocene.
Neanderthals did control fire, which likely contributed to their survival in harsh northern latitudes

Question 27

talk about neanderthals ad cannibalism

Answer 27

As with H. antecessor, the evidence for cannibalism among Neanderthals in a few isolated cases is fairly conclusive.
• The best evidence – in the form of deep, systematically-produced cut marks—comes from half a dozen sites in southern France, northern Spain and Croatia.
• In 1994, researchers working in a cave system at El Sidron, Spain, discovered a group of 12 Neanderthals (6 adults and 6 juveniles) who had been butchered quickly and eaten raw, presumably by another group of Neanderthals. This ‘massacre’ site has been dated to 50 kya. Cut marks were clear and systematic, and bones had been broken for marrow and organ extraction

Spanish researchers have argued that at El Sidron, a group may have ambushed the victims during a winter period of scarcity (no evidence for fires was found in the cave complex).
• As with cut marks on H. antecessor bones, it’s been suggested that such modification of Neanderthal bones was caused by excarnation (de-fleshing).
• With both species, we have no clear evidence that these modifications were the result of anything other than nutritional cannibalism

Question 28

what is Language

Answer 28

the ability to convey and interpret complex thoughts—is a controversial aspect of behaviour
Language can be conveyed verbally or through gestures (sign languages), as long as it’s able to produce complex ideas in a flexible and open-‐ended way

Question 29

did neanderthals communicate

Answer 29

Neanderthals certainly had the ability to convey thoughts through gestures; what about verbally? What was the possible range of Neanderthal vocalization?
• It was long believed that the Neanderthal vocal tract was too similar to that of apes to allow them to produce a complex range of sounds

Question 30

what proof is there that H. neanderthalensis use langage

Answer 30

In 1989, researchers excavating a 60,000-year-old Neanderthal burial at Kebara, Mount Carmel, Israel, recovered a nearly-complete hyoid bone, which anchors tongue muscles and aids in swallowing. It also raises the larynx, allowing us to vocalize

Though the relationship between the shape of the hyoid and speech range has been questioned, most researchers agree there is a correlation. If true, the human‐like Neanderthal hyoid may have facilitated a range of sounds similar to our own

Question 31

what was the H. neanderthalensis

Family Life like

Answer 31

The remains of several Neanderthals indicate the elderly and wounded were cared for— often for long periods of time

Long-term care for the weakest (not necessarily the youngest) individuals in a group is indicative of strong social bonds.
Don’t forget, there is also evidence for complex hunting behaviour among Neanderthals, which only adds to our understanding that Neanderthal social organization was more complex than once thought

Question 32

what were the H. neanderthalensis burials like

Answer 32

There’s now little doubt that Neanderthals intentionally buried their dead. Recent re-excavations at La Chapelle‐aux‐Saints by team from NYU show that the elderly male Neanderthal described in such painstaking detail by Marcellin Boule in the early 20th century was intentionally buried approximately 50 – 60 kya. Still, were these burials ritualistic or hygienic

At Shanidar Cave in the Zagros Mountains of Iraqi Kurdistan, excavations in the early 1960s revealed the partial remains of 7 adults and 2 infant Neanderthals. One – an adult male (Shanidar - IV) — was found will pollen surrounding the body. The excavator, Ralph Solecki, proposed this as proof of burial offerings

Question 33

what must be kept in mind about burials

Answer 33

These interpretations are not universally accepted. Pollen may have been introduced into the cave by other means. We must be careful not to project modern practices onto other species

Question 34

In Western Europe, a material culture is identified that presents a challenge for archaeologists interested in the complexity of Neanderthal cognition.
Sites include Grotte-du-Renne (Arcy-sur- Cure), Saint-Cesaire, and Les Cottes, France.
Why so interesting?

Answer 34

This material culture appears in late Neanderthal occupations, dating to periods after modern humans had arrived in Europe between 45 – 35 kya, and present a mix of Neanderthal and modern human material culture

Question 35

in culture, what are the continuity and discontinuities

Answer 35

Continuities with Neanderthal material culture:
typical Mousterian tools (scrapers, Mousterian points, Levallois flakes)
• Discontinuities with Neanderthal material culture:
technology and objects from the Aurignacian – the first tool industry associated with modern humans in Europe (ornaments, bone and antler tools)

Question 36

what were some rituals of the neanderthals

Answer 36

Ornamentation and decoration of the body (painting, tattooing, etc.) is widely seen as typifying modern human behavior

Question 37

what are the theories about Ornamentation and decoration of the body (painting, tattooing, etc.) is widely seen as typifying modern human behavior

Answer 37

1. Is the Châtelperronian a native innovation to Neanderthals?
2. Or is it a ‘borrowed’ style from the Aurignacian tradition
   through acculturation?
3. Or have the stratigraphic contexts been mixed?

Question 38

what is The Neanderthal Legacy

Answer 38

Decades-old hypotheses regarding the fate of Neanderthals suggested that they were unable to compete against, what were assumed to be, incoming cognitively and culturally advanced populations of modern humans, and so they essentially went extinct by ~30,000 years ago.
In recent years, we have different hypotheses, thanks in large part to more fossil and genetic discoveries

Question 39

what is the Proof of “métissage”?

Answer 39

In 1998, at Lagar Velho, Portugal, João Zilhão and his team uncovered the remains of a 4-year old boy.
• The remains date to 24,500 BP
• The fossils show a mosaic of Neanderthal and modern human traits:
• more Neanderthal-like post-crania
• more modern human-shaped cranium
• Buried with pierced shell and red ochre, indicating possible ritual interment of remains

In 2002, at Pestera cu Oase (literally, “The Cave with Bones”), Romania, a team of cavers uncovered a nearly complete mandible (Oase 1)
• As with Lagar Velho, Oase 1 shows traits that seem to be a mosaic of Neanderthal and modern human.
• Dates to between 36-34 kya