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Food Composition Flashcards

1
Q

Why is knowing the composition of foods important?

A

It is important for health and disease management, clinical practice, formulation of therapeutic diets, research, nutrition education, and identification of food allergens.

Understanding food composition helps in various fields such as sports nutrition and public health nutrition.

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2
Q

What role does food composition play in clinical practice?

A

It assists in the assessment of health and nutritional status, such as identifying deficiencies in diet.

This is crucial for developing appropriate dietary interventions.

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3
Q

How does research utilize food composition?

A

Epidemiological research explores relationships between diet and disease, such as fiber and bowel cancer or saturated fatty acids and heart disease.

This helps in understanding the impact of nutrition on health outcomes.

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4
Q

What is the purpose of health promotion in relation to food composition?

A

To assess how well dietary guidelines and Daily Reference Values (DRVs) are being met and to identify which nutrients need promoting.

This can lead to better public health strategies.

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5
Q

What are therapeutic diets?

A

Therapeutic diets are dietary plans formulated for specific health conditions like IBS, celiac disease, and lactose intolerance.

These diets aim to manage symptoms and improve health.

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6
Q

Fill in the blank: The study of the relationships between diet and disease is known as _______.

A

[epidemiological research]

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7
Q

True or False: Knowing the composition of foods is only important for clinical practice.

A

False

It is also vital for research, health promotion, and therapeutic diet formulation.

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8
Q

What is one example of a diet-related disease that can be studied through food composition?

A

Bowel cancer related to fiber intake or heart disease related to saturated fatty acids.

These examples highlight the importance of diet in disease prevention.

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9
Q

What is the significance of identifying food allergens?

A

It is crucial for preventing allergic reactions and ensuring safe dietary practices for individuals with food allergies.

This knowledge is vital in both clinical and public health settings.

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10
Q

What is the importance of knowing the composition of foods?

A

It supports food trade and supply, nutrition training, health claims, food safety, and improvements to the food supply.

Understanding food composition is crucial for various stakeholders in the food industry.

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11
Q

What are some aspects of food trade and supply?

A
  • Food products and recipes
  • Food and nutrition training
  • Nutrition labelling
  • Health claims
  • Nutrition claims
  • Food safety, quality and consumer protection
  • Supporting improvements to the food supply

These aspects are vital for ensuring a safe and nutritious food supply.

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12
Q

What is nutrition labelling?

A

A system that provides information about the nutritional value of processed foods.

Nutrition labelling helps consumers make informed choices about their diets.

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13
Q

What methods are mentioned for improving the food supply?

A
  • Plant breeding
  • New methods of cultivation
  • Harvesting
  • Preservation
  • Animal breeding

These methods aim to enhance the nutritional profiles and safety of food products.

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14
Q

True or False: Nutrition claims are different from health claims.

A

True

Nutrition claims refer to the nutritional content, while health claims relate to the benefits of the food for health.

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15
Q

Fill in the blank: _______ is essential for consumer protection and information regarding food safety.

A

[Nutrition labelling]

This ensures that consumers are aware of what they are consuming.

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16
Q

What is the importance of knowing the composition of foods at the national level?

A

Estimation of adequacy of dietary intake of population groups

This includes assessing the nutritional status of different demographics.

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17
Q

What is one use of food composition data in epidemiological studies?

A

Evaluation of nutrition education programs

This helps determine the effectiveness of public health initiatives aimed at improving nutrition.

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18
Q

What role does food composition knowledge play in nutrition intervention programs?

A

Nutrition intervention and fortification programs

It assists in designing programs that target specific nutritional deficiencies.

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19
Q

What is a key aspect of nutritional labelling of food products?

A

Providing information on food composition

This helps consumers make informed dietary choices.

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20
Q

What is a goal of developing national and international food policies?

A

To improve population health through better food systems

Policies are often based on food composition data.

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21
Q

What does monitoring at the government level involve regarding food?

A

Availability of food produced and estimation of food intake at national level

This ensures food security and addresses potential shortages.

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22
Q

What is food balance data used for?

A

Estimate amount of food available for the nation

This is crucial for planning and sustainability efforts.

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23
Q

How does research improve the food supply chain?

A

By identifying inefficiencies and areas for enhancement

This can lead to better quality and accessibility of food.

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24
Q

What is the purpose of food and nutrition training?

A

To educate individuals about healthy dietary practices

This includes both professional training and community outreach.

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25
Q

What is a major focus of nutrition and health promotion?

A

The relationship between diet, health, and nutritional status

Understanding this relationship is vital for public health strategies.

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26
Q

What study involved over 521,000 participants from 10 different European countries?

A

European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition

Commenced in 1993, this study aims to explore diet and cancer links.

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27
Q

What has been studied since 1918 to identify factors contributing to CVD?

A

Multinational research on dietary habits

This research focuses on common characteristics affecting cardiovascular health.

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28
Q

What is the significance of knowing the composition of foods?

A

It is crucial for assessing the adequacy of dietary intake of a population.

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29
Q

What does NDNS stand for?

A

National Diet and Nutrition Survey

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30
Q

What is the aim of the EPIC Study?

A

To investigate the correlation between diet, health, and nutritional status among over 521,000 participants across 10 European countries.

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31
Q

What ongoing study started in 1948 to identify factors contributing to cardiovascular disease (CVD)?

A

The Framingham Heart Study

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32
Q

Fill in the blank: Nutrition interventions require the use of food composition data to translate specific nutrient needs into _______.

A

food requirements

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33
Q

What is Healthy Start in the context of nutrition interventions?

A

A program that includes mandatory fortification of certain foods.

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34
Q

Which nutrients are mandated to be fortified in white flour?

A
  • Calcium
  • Iron
  • Vitamins B1 and B3
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35
Q

What vitamins are mandatory in the fortification of margarines?

A
  • Vitamin A
  • Vitamin D
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36
Q

What is the role of a national food and nutrition policy?

A

To define goals for the intake of certain nutrients.

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37
Q

What organizations are involved in the development of international food policies?

A
  • WHO (World Health Organization)
  • FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)
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38
Q

What does the National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) assess?

A

The diet, nutrient intake, and nutritional status of the general population in the UK.

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39
Q

What data did the latest NDNS cover?

A

2008 - 2012

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40
Q

What is the purpose of monitoring at the government level regarding food?

A

To assess the availability of food produced and estimate food intake at the national level.

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41
Q

What is the role of food composition data at the regional level?

A

Food composition data are used to translate recommended nutrient intakes into cost-limited foods and menus.

Large sectors of the population, such as military establishments and schools, benefit from these translated meals.

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42
Q

How does food composition data contribute to quality control?

A

Quality control of food produced through routine analysis in the food industries.

This ensures that food products meet safety and nutritional standards.

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43
Q

What is one example of a scandal related to food composition?

A

Horse Meat Scandal.

This scandal highlighted issues of food labeling and composition accuracy.

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44
Q

What is the purpose of household food surveys?

A

Household food surveys are conducted on household food consumption for national use.

They provide data for understanding food habits and nutritional intake at the national level.

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45
Q

What does the LIDNS stand for and when was it conducted?

A

LIDNS stands for Low Income Diet and Nutrition Survey, conducted in 2007.

It included data from over 2,400 low-income households.

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46
Q

What type of reports does DEFRA produce regarding food?

A

DEFRA produces ‘Family Food’ reports, which provide the latest available data for food consumption.

The most recent data available in the provided context is from 2013.

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47
Q

How can a person’s nutrient intake be calculated?

A

A person’s nutrient intake can be calculated using food composition data and food intake data.

This can be estimated from dietary history, dietary recall, or measured in a weighed intake study.

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48
Q

What is the importance of individual nutritional balance studies?

A

Individual nutritional balance studies help assess nutrient intake against individual energy needs through intake and expenditure.

They provide critical information for dietary advice and therapeutic diet prescriptions.

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49
Q

Fill in the blank: Household food economics are important for _______.

A

national use.

This includes understanding food budgets and consumption patterns.

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50
Q

True or False: Food composition data is only useful for individual dietary assessments.

A

False.

It is also crucial for regional and household level applications.

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51
Q

What is the significance of monitoring dietary intake at the individual level?

A

Monitoring dietary intake is important for assessing health status and determining dietary adequacy or imbalance.

This plays a key role in formulating dietary advice.

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52
Q

What are Food Composition Databases (FCDBs)?

A

Detailed sets of information on the nutritionally important components of foods

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53
Q

What type of values do Food Composition Databases provide?

A

Values for energy and nutrients, including:

  • Protein
  • Carbohydrates
  • Fat
  • Vitamins and minerals
  • Other (fibre, polyphenols)
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54
Q

How is data presented in Food Composition Databases?

A

In Food Composition Tables and/or Food Composition Databases

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55
Q

Fill in the blank: Food Composition Data (FCD) includes detailed information on the _______ components of foods.

A

[nutritionally important]

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56
Q

True or False: Food Composition Databases only provide information on macronutrients.

A

False

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57
Q

What are the Direct Methods used to derive data for FCDBs?

A

Sampling and chemical analysis to obtain the primary data

Direct method involves conducting analyses specifically for the database.

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58
Q

What is a key characteristic of the data obtained through Direct Methods?

A

Highly reliable data

Close control of sampling, analysis, and quality control procedures results in highly reliable data.

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59
Q

What are the drawbacks of using Direct Methods for data collection?

A

Costly and time-consuming

This imposes pressure on the analytical resources available in many parts of the world.

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60
Q

True or False: The direct method for compiling databases involves only secondary data.

A

False

The direct method involves primary data obtained through analysis.

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61
Q

Fill in the blank: The direct method remains _______ and _______ in terms of data collection.

A

costly, time-consuming

This reflects the challenges faced in analytical resource allocation.

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62
Q

What are the indirect methods used by Food Composition Databases (FCDBs) to derive data?

A

Types of data:
* Original analytical values
* Published literature, unpublished laboratory reports
* Imputed values
* Calculated values
* Borrowed values

Indirect methods may vary in quality and can include estimates from similar foods or other forms of the same food

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63
Q

Define ‘impute’ in the context of food composition data.

A

To calculate something when you do not have exact information, by comparing it to something similar

For example, using values for peas to estimate the nutrient content of green beans

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64
Q

What are calculated values based on in Food Composition Databases?

A

Calculated from the nutrient contents of the ingredients and corrected for:
* Preparation factors (yield)
* Micronutrient changes (retention)

These values are rough estimates due to variability in cooking conditions

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65
Q

What do borrowed values refer to in the context of FCDBs?

A

Values taken from other tables and databases, where reference back to the original source may or may not be possible

Adequate reference to original sources is necessary to justify a borrowed value

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66
Q

What factors can affect the yield and retention of nutrients in food preparation?

A

Cooking temperature and duration

These factors can significantly impact the nutrient content of the food

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67
Q

Fill in the blank: Imputed values are derived from _______.

A

[analytical values from a similar food or another form of the same food]

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68
Q

True or False: Borrowed values do not require reference to the original source.

A

False

Adequate reference is necessary to justify the use of borrowed values

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69
Q

What are the two main types of calculated values in FCDBs?

A

Values derived from:
* Recipes
* Nutrient contents of ingredients

These values are adjusted for preparation factors and micronutrient changes

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70
Q

What is necessary for justifying a borrowed value in FCDBs?

A

Adequate reference to original sources

This ensures the credibility of the borrowed data

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71
Q

List the types of data that can be included in Food Composition Databases.

A
  • Original analytical values
  • Published literature
  • Unpublished laboratory reports
  • Imputed values
  • Calculated values
  • Borrowed values

Each type may vary in quality and reliability

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72
Q

What are Food Composition Databases (FCDBs)?

A

Databases that provide information on the composition of foods.

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73
Q

What are the two main methods FCDBs derive data from?

A

Direct Methods and Indirect Methods.

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74
Q

What is a key characteristic of Indirect Methods?

A

Less control over the quality of the data.

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75
Q

Why must great care be taken in the appraisal of data in FCDBs?

A

Values imputed, calculated or borrowed carry a lower degree of confidence.

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76
Q

When are Indirect Methods most commonly employed?

A
  • Analytical resources are limited
  • Food supply is largely imported from other countries.
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77
Q

What is a disadvantage of using Indirect Methods in FCDBs?

A

It is time-consuming and costly due to the level of scrutiny required.

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78
Q

What does the term ‘imputed values’ refer to?

A

Values that are estimated or inferred rather than directly measured.

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79
Q

What is required for data to be used internationally in FCDBs?

A

Data must be of consistent and compatible quality.

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80
Q

True or False: Indirect Methods require more analytical resources than Direct Methods.

A

False.

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81
Q

Fill in the blank: Values which are imputed, calculated, or taken from other tables or databases carry a ______ degree of confidence.

A

lower

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82
Q

What can affect the quality of data in Indirect Methods?

A

Uneven quality between sources.

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83
Q

What should data in a comprehensive food composition database represent?

A

The best available estimate of the usual composition of foods in the forms most commonly obtained or consumed.

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84
Q

What is a key criterion for the analytical quality of data?

A

Sampling procedures, methods of analysis, and assurance of data quality should be considered.

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85
Q

What does comprehensive coverage of foods in a database entail?

A

Including all foods that form a major part of the food supply and as many less frequently consumed foods as possible.

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86
Q

Why should variability in food composition be measured?

A

To provide a more accurate representation of food composition, especially when common cooking methods are used.

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87
Q

What type of data is considered ideal for food composition databases?

A

Original analytical data from rigorously scrutinized sources.

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88
Q

Fill in the blank: The database should include _______ foods that form a major part of the food supply.

A

[all]

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89
Q

True or False: Imputed or calculated data should be included in the database even if original analytical data are available.

A

False

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90
Q

What should be prioritized when original analytical data are not available?

A

Values from other databases should be included only when original analytical data are not available or of insufficient quality.

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91
Q

What should the coverage of nutrients in a comprehensive food composition database be?

A

Comprehensive

A comprehensive coverage means including all relevant nutrients that are important to human health.

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92
Q

How should food descriptions in a food composition database be characterized?

A

Clear and unambiguous

Foods must be clearly named and described to avoid confusion.

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93
Q

What is necessary for data expression in food composition databases?

A

Consistent and unambiguous

Data must be expressed in a clear manner without ambiguity to ensure accurate interpretation.

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94
Q

What should be provided regarding the origins of data in a food composition database?

A

At nutrient value level

The source of data should be specified, whether it is analytical, calculated, or imputed.

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95
Q

What types of values should be included in a food composition database?

A

Values for all important nutrients and components

National health priorities influence which nutrients are deemed important.

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96
Q

How must foods be identified in a food composition database?

A

Unambiguously named and described

This ensures that users can easily identify and refer to specific foods.

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97
Q

What should be consistent in the data of a food composition database?

A

Mode of expression, use of units, and rounding procedures

Consistency helps maintain accuracy and reliability in the database.

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98
Q

What information should be provided regarding data sources in a food composition database?

A

Analytical, calculated, or imputed

Additionally, the methods of calculation and sampling should be noted.

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99
Q

What types of codes should be supplied for the values in a food composition database?

A

Confidence or quality codes

These codes indicate the reliability of the data presented.

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100
Q

What is a key criterion for a comprehensive food composition database?

A

Tables and databases should be easy to use

User-friendliness is essential for effective data access and interpretation.

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101
Q

Why should the content of different food composition databases be compatible?

A

To ensure clear terminology and systematic expression

Compatibility allows for consistent understanding and usage across different databases.

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102
Q

What is the impact of having missing data in food composition databases?

A

Can significantly distort the resultant nutrient intake estimations

Missing data can lead to inaccurate dietary assessments.

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103
Q

What is preferred over having no data at all in food composition databases?

A

Imputed or borrowed data, clearly identified as such

This practice can help fill gaps and provide a more complete dataset.

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104
Q

What should descriptions of foods in databases conform to?

A

Existing international standards and other major comprehensive food composition databases

Conformity enhances reliability and comparability of data.

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105
Q

What is the goal regarding gaps in food composition databases?

A

To aim to have as few gaps as possible

Minimizing gaps improves the overall quality and usability of the database.

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106
Q

Why are regular updates to food composition tables necessary?

A

Regular updates are necessary due to:
* New food products
* Changing nutritional values

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107
Q

What are some influential factors for changes in nutritional values?

A

Influential factors include:
* New varieties or sources of supply
* New farming practices
* New manufacturing practices
* Changes in preparation and cooking methods

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108
Q

Fill in the blank: The nutritional values of many traditional foods have changed due to _______.

A

[new varieties or sources of supply]

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109
Q

True or False: The introduction of new manufacturing practices does not affect the nutritional values of food.

A

False

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110
Q

What types of changes in ingredients can affect nutritional values?

A

Changes in ingredients can include:
* Reductions in fat
* Reductions in sugar
* Reductions in salt
* New fortification practices

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111
Q

Fill in the blank: New _______ practices can affect the nutritional value of both plant and animal products.

A

[farming]

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112
Q

What has happened since the 5th summary edition of food composition tables?

A

Many new fresh and manufactured foods have become familiar items in shops.

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113
Q

What factors can lead to changes in nutritional values?

A

Factors include:
* Reformulation of processed foods and composite dishes
* New varieties or new supply sources for raw materials
* New farming practices for both plant and animal products
* New food manufacturing practices
* Changes in fortification practices
* Changes to methods of preparation and cooking in the home

These factors reflect both technological advancements and shifts in consumer preferences.

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114
Q

Fill in the blank: Nutritional values may change due to new _______ or new supply sources used for raw materials.

A

[varieties]

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115
Q

True or False: Changes in fortification practices can affect nutritional values.

A

True

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116
Q

What are some new manufacturing practices that can alter nutritional values?

A

New manufacturing practices may include:
* Changes in the type and amounts of ingredients
* Reductions in the amount of fat, sugar, and salt added
* New fortification practices

These practices aim to improve health outcomes and cater to consumer demands.

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117
Q

What is the Kjeldahl method used for?

A

Analytical methods for determining nitrogen content in foods

The Kjeldahl method is a widely used method in food analysis to measure the nitrogen content, which is crucial for calculating protein levels.

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118
Q

What does the Dumas method analyze?

A

Nitrogen content in foods

The Dumas method is another technique for nitrogen determination, often considered faster than the Kjeldahl method.

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119
Q

What type of chromatography is mentioned in the document?

A

Gas Liquid Chromatography

This method is used for separating and analyzing compounds that can be vaporized without decomposition.

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120
Q

List the components of food as mentioned.

A
  • Nitrogen
  • Fatty acids & cholesterol
  • Carbohydrates (CHO)
  • Fibre
  • Vitamins & Minerals

These components are essential for understanding the nutritional value of food.

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121
Q

What is the AOAC Official method 985.29 used for?

A

Determining the composition of foods

This method is standardized by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists for food analysis.

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122
Q

What analytical method is abbreviated as HPLC?

A

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

HPLC is a powerful technique used for separating, identifying, and quantifying compounds in a mixture.

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123
Q

What does ICPOES stand for?

A

Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy

ICPOES is a technique used for analyzing metals and trace elements in samples.

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124
Q

What analytical technique uses color measurement?

A

Colorimetry

Colorimetry is used to determine the concentration of colored compounds in a solution.

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125
Q

What is one major source of variability in nutrient composition?

A

Geographical samples

Variations due to soil and climatic conditions

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126
Q

What seasonal variations affect plant foods?

A

Water, carbohydrate, and vitamin content

Seasonal changes influence nutrient levels

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127
Q

How does the physiological state and maturity of food affect its nutrient composition?

A

Affects concentrations of sugars, organic acids, vitamins, fats, and minerals

Maturity impacts nutrient levels in both plants and animals

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128
Q

What is the significance of cultivar in nutrient composition?

A

Refers to an assemblage of plants selected for desirable characters

Cultivar can cause significant variation in nutrient content

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129
Q

What are common sources of variability in nutrient composition?

A
  • Geography
  • Season
  • Physiological state and maturity
  • Cultivation and breed

These factors can lead to significant differences in nutrient levels

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130
Q

True or False: Seasonal variations in nutrient composition are only relevant for animal foods.

A

False

Seasonal variations affect both plant and animal foods

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131
Q

What nutrient variations are seen in fish based on seasonal changes?

A

Fat content

Fish exhibit seasonal variations particularly in their fat levels

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132
Q

Fill in the blank: The physiological state and _______ of plants and animal foods cause variation in composition.

A

maturity

Maturity affects the nutrient levels significantly

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133
Q

How do seasonal differences in feeding patterns affect milk and milk products?

A

Lead to variations in vitamin content

Feeding patterns change with seasons, impacting nutrient levels

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134
Q

What factors contribute to variations in food marketing and food preparation?

A

Geographical differences

Different regions may have varied practices affecting nutrient composition

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135
Q

What are the sources of samples used for direct analyses?

A

Samples are purchased from:
* Shops
* Supermarkets
* Other retail outlets
* Food service outlets or catering suppliers

This includes various types of food items to ensure a comprehensive analysis.

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136
Q

How is a composite sample made when multiple brands are involved?

A

The proportion of individual brands analyzed relates to their relative shares of the retail market

For example, if a brand has a 40% market share, 40% of the samples analyzed come from that brand.

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137
Q

What does the preparation of samples reflect?

A

It reflects practices in the domestic environment based on:
* Manufacturer’s recommendations
* General customs

This ensures that the analysis is relevant to typical consumer practices.

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138
Q

True or False: Samples for analyses are only taken from supermarkets.

A

False

Samples can also be taken from shops, food service outlets, and catering suppliers.

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139
Q

Fill in the blank: When a composite sample is made, the proportion of individual brands analyzed is related to their relative _______.

A

shares of the retail market

This method ensures that the analysis accurately reflects market availability.

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140
Q

What is a key consideration when preparing food samples for analysis?

A

The preparation should reflect practices in the domestic environment

This includes adhering to recommendations from manufacturers.

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141
Q

What types of food items are included in the sample analysis?

A

Food items purchased from:
* Shops
* Supermarkets
* Food service outlets
* Catering suppliers

This variety helps in obtaining a representative analysis of food composition.

142
Q

What does applicability mean in the context of analytical methods?

A

A method is applicable within the context in which it will be used.

This includes the freedom from interference from other constituents in the food or from the physical attributes of the food matrix that would make extraction of the analyte incomplete.

143
Q

What factors determine the applicability of an analytical method?

A

The usable range of the method and the context in which it is used.

Applicability is also a qualitative term.

144
Q

True or False: A method that is applicable at high concentrations may also be applicable at low concentrations.

A

False

Methods that are applicable at high concentrations may not be applicable at low concentrations.

145
Q

Fill in the blank: A method may be applicable to one matrix (e.g. meat) but be inappropriate for another matrix (e.g. _______).

A

a cereal product

146
Q

What should be done with unfamiliar methods or methods described for a specific food?

A

They must be checked carefully when used for a matrix that is different from those for which they have been used previously.

147
Q

What is a basic consideration when choosing an analytical method?

A

Are you using an appropriate method which allows you to analyse the nutrient effectively.

148
Q

What is specificity in analytical methods?

A

The ability of a method to respond exclusively to the substance for which the method is being used

Many methods are described as ‘semi-specific’ if they rely on the absence of interfering substances.

149
Q

What is an example of a situation where poor specificity is acceptable?

A

When the purpose of the analysis is to measure all similar substances within a group, such as total fat or ash

This approach allows for the analysis of a broader range of substances.

150
Q

True or False: All analytical methods are highly specific.

A

False

Many methods are ‘semi-specific’ and may not exclusively measure the intended substance.

151
Q

Fill in the blank: Many methods are ‘_______’, relying on the absence of interfering substances.

A

semi-specific

This means they may respond to similar substances in the sample.

152
Q

What is the main concern regarding specificity in analytical methods?

A

Are you measuring only what you are trying to measure and not other things as well

This is crucial for ensuring accurate and relevant analysis results.

153
Q

What is accuracy in analytical methods?

A

The closeness of the value obtained by the method in relation to the ‘true value’ for the concentration of the constituent

Often expressed as percentage accuracy

154
Q

What is inaccuracy?

A

The difference between the measured value and the ‘true value’

The ‘true value’ for a nutrient in a food is not known, making all analytical values estimates

155
Q

Who argued that there exists a true value for all constituents in a sample of food?

A

Buttner et al. (1975)

This view emphasizes that the value for a defined analytical sample is not the ‘true value’ for all samples of that food

156
Q

What factors determine the confidence limits for determined values?

A

Sampling error and analytical errors for any specific method

These errors are crucial in understanding the accuracy of the analysis

157
Q

How is the accuracy of a method usually determined?

A

By reference to standard amounts of the analyte and preferably by the analysis of standard reference materials (SRMs) or certified reference materials (CRMs)

SRMs or CRMs are analyzed by skilled analysts to provide certified values and confidence limits

158
Q

Fill in the blank: The concept of a ‘true value’ is __________ because the ‘true value’ for a nutrient in a food is not known.

A

[hypothetical]

159
Q

True or False: All analytical values are exact representations of the true value.

A

False

All analytical values are estimates of the true value, which is not known

160
Q

What is precision in analytical methods?

A

A measure of the closeness of replicated analyses of a nutrient in a sample of food

161
Q

What does precision quantify?

A

Analytical variability or scatter

162
Q

What are the two key terms associated with precision?

A
  • Repeatability
  • Reproducibility
163
Q

How is precision measured?

A

By calculating the standard deviation (SD) of the analytical values

164
Q

What is the difference between repeatability and reproducibility?

A
  • Repeatability: Analyses by one analyst in one laboratory
  • Reproducibility: Analyses by several analysts in different laboratories
165
Q

What is concordance in the context of precision?

A

Comparisons among different analysts in one laboratory

166
Q

What must be ensured when calculating standard deviation (SD)?

A

There must be a sufficient number of replications

167
Q

True or False: Precision and accuracy are the same concepts.

168
Q

What can high precision and poor accuracy result in?

A

Wide confidence limits of the value obtained

169
Q

What is the ideal combination in analytical methods?

A

High precision (low RSD) combined with high accuracy

170
Q

Fill in the blank: The measurements for repeatability must be made by _______.

A

[one analyst within one laboratory]

171
Q

Fill in the blank: The measurements for reproducibility must be made by _______.

A

[several analysts in different laboratories]

172
Q

What is a major current challenge for food composition databases?

A

Keeping information up-to-date

This includes regularly updating data to reflect changes in food products and nutritional information.

173
Q

What factor complicates food composition databases related to markets?

A

Constantly changing food markets

New products and trends require ongoing updates to databases.

174
Q

Which population groups require specific attention in food composition databases?

A

Specific population groups (e.g. ethnic foods)

Different communities may have unique dietary needs and food types.

175
Q

What types of food components are increasingly recognized beyond conventional ‘nutrients’?

A

Food components beyond conventional ‘nutrients’ (e.g. ‘polyphenols’)

This highlights the importance of non-nutrient compounds in food analysis.

176
Q

What improvements are needed in analytical methods for food composition?

A

Better ‘analytical methods’ + better ‘sampling’

Enhancements in these areas can lead to more accurate food component measurements.

177
Q

What is a significant consideration regarding food’s impact on health?

A

Environmental impact of food?

Understanding how food production affects the environment is becoming increasingly important.

178
Q

Fill in the blank: Food composition databases face challenges due to _______.

A

[constantly changing food markets]

This reflects the dynamic nature of the food industry.

179
Q

True or False: Food composition databases only need to focus on conventional nutrients.

A

False

There is a growing recognition of the importance of non-nutritional components.

180
Q

Why do food composition tables need to be regularly updated?

A

To account for:
* New foods (fresh and manufactured)
* Changes in nutritional value of traditional foods due to new varieties
* New sources of supply for raw materials
* New farming practices
* New manufacturing practices
* New methods of preparation and cooking at home

Regular updates ensure that the tables reflect current nutritional information and food options available to consumers.

181
Q

What are the limitations of food composition tables?

A

Lack of precision due to the natural variability of foods.

Natural variability can result from factors like growing conditions, seasonality, and food processing methods.

182
Q

Who were responsible for the production of tables of nutrient content of foods?

A

McCance & Widdowson

They played a crucial role in nutritional research.

183
Q

In what year did Robert McCance start his work on the CHO content of fruit and vegetables?

A

1926

This work aimed to aid understanding of diabetic diet.

184
Q

What was the initial focus of Robert McCance’s research?

A

CHO content of fruit & vegetables

CHO stands for carbohydrates.

185
Q

Under which council was the initial work on nutrient content conducted?

A

Medical Research Council

This council supported early nutritional research.

186
Q

What types of food were included in the extended research conducted by McCance & Widdowson?

A

Meat & fish

Their research expanded beyond fruits and vegetables.

187
Q

In which decade did Elsie Widdowson join the research team?

A

Early 1930’s

Her contributions were significant in the field of nutrition.

188
Q

Who were responsible for wartime rationing and fortification of bread?

A

Widdowson & McCance

189
Q

What did Widdowson express about using human subjects in experiments?

A

“We did not believe that we should use human subjects in experiments that involved any pain hardship or danger, unless we had made the same experiments on ourselves”

190
Q

Fill in the blank: Widdowson was quoted by Elliott in 2007 in the article titled _______.

A

[Elsie - Mother of the modern loaf]

191
Q

True or False: Widdowson and McCance believed in conducting painful experiments on human subjects.

192
Q

What was one of the key contributions of Widdowson and McCance during wartime?

A

Fortification of bread with calcium

193
Q

What was the title of the first edition published in 1940?

A

The Chemical Composition of Foods

This edition included analyses of various food categories such as fruit, vegetables, nuts, meat, fish, cereals, dairy, beverages, and preserves.

194
Q

What additional content was included in the 2nd edition published in 1946?

A

Values for war time foods & recipes

This edition addressed the nutritional needs during wartime.

195
Q

What significant changes were made in the 3rd edition published in 1960?

A

Recipes revised, vitamin & amino acid values included

This edition reflected updated nutritional science and recipe adjustments.

196
Q

What types of food analyses were included in the first edition?

A
  • Fruit
  • Vegetables
  • Nuts
  • Meat
  • Fish
  • Cereals
  • Dairy
  • Beverages
  • Preserves

These categories provided a comprehensive overview of the chemical composition of various foods.

197
Q

Fill in the blank: The first edition of ‘The Chemical Composition of Foods’ was published in _______.

198
Q

What is the title of the book referenced in the seminar lecture?

A

The Composition of Foods

199
Q

What edition of ‘The Composition of Foods’ was published in 1978?

200
Q

What major categories of food figures were revised in the 4th Ed?

A

Meat, dairy & cereal

201
Q

What years did additional supplements for the food composition data get produced?

202
Q

What specific nutrient contents were included in the supplements produced between 1980-1998?

A

Fatty acid & amino acid content

203
Q

Which organization initially took responsibility for food composition data after MAFF?

204
Q

In what year was the 5th Edition of ‘The Composition of Foods’ published?

205
Q

What does the 6th Edition of ‘The Composition of Foods’ do in relation to the 5th Edition?

A

Extends & updates with most recent nutrient values

206
Q

What was recalibrated in the 6th Edition of ‘The Composition of Foods’?

A

All recipes

207
Q

Fill in the blank: The responsibility for food composition data passed from MAFF to _______.

208
Q

True or False: The 6th Edition of ‘The Composition of Foods’ includes detailed supplements from the 5th Edition.

209
Q

What is the title of the main work discussed in the content?

A

The Composition of Foods

210
Q

What edition of McCance and Widdowson’s work is referenced?

A

Seventh Summary Edition

211
Q

How many key foods does the seventh summary edition include analytical data for?

A

Over 400 key foods

212
Q

What type of information does the seventh summary edition provide?

A

New & previously unpublished analytical data

213
Q

What does the publication include regarding data sources?

A

Main data sources for each food provided

214
Q

What is emphasized about the information in the seventh summary edition?

A

Most recent information

215
Q

True or False: The seventh summary edition includes outdated information.

216
Q

Fill in the blank: The seventh summary edition includes data for _____ key foods.

217
Q

What are the fundamental structural and functional elements within every cell?

A

Protein

Proteins play crucial roles in various cellular processes.

218
Q

What are some examples of proteins?

A
  • Enzymes
  • Membrane carriers
  • Hair
  • Fingernails

These examples illustrate the diverse functions of proteins in the body.

219
Q

What is the second most abundant chemical compound in the body?

A

Protein

This highlights the significance of proteins in human biology.

220
Q

What percentage of protein is found in a 70kg adult man?

A

Approximately 16% protein

The distribution of protein varies among different tissues.

221
Q

What percentage of protein is found in muscle tissue?

A

43%

Muscle is the most protein-rich tissue in the body.

222
Q

What percentage of protein is found in skin?

A

15%

Skin contains significant amounts of protein, contributing to its structure and function.

223
Q

What percentage of protein is found in blood?

A

16%

Blood proteins play essential roles in transport and immune function.

224
Q

What are the muscle proteins found in meat and fish?

A

Actin, myosin

Muscle proteins are essential for muscle contraction and structure.

225
Q

Name the types of connective tissue proteins in meat and fish.

A

Collagen, elastin, gelatin

Connective tissue proteins provide structure and support within the body.

226
Q

What is the primary protein found in eggs?

A

Ovalbumin

Ovalbumin is the main protein in egg white, contributing to its nutritional value.

227
Q

Which protein is predominantly found in milk?

A

Casein

Casein is a slow-digesting dairy protein that provides amino acids.

228
Q

What protein is primarily found in wheat and flour?

A

Gluten

Gluten is responsible for the elasticity and texture of dough.

229
Q

What are textured vegetable proteins?

A

Sources of protein from plants that mimic the texture of meat

Textured vegetable proteins are often used as meat substitutes in various dishes.

230
Q

What is the basic structure of amino acids?

A

• Amino group NH2
• Carboxyl group COOH
• R group - variable organic component

The amino group and carboxyl group are essential components of all amino acids.

231
Q

What does the R group represent in amino acids?

A

Variable organic component

The R group determines the specific characteristics and properties of each amino acid.

232
Q

What is the terminal carbon in an amino acid structure referred to as?

A

‘N’ terminal a carbon

This indicates the amino end of the amino acid.

233
Q

What is the carboxyl group’s designation in an amino acid?

A

‘C’ terminal

This indicates the acid end of the amino acid.

234
Q

What determines the chemical and physical structure of an amino acid?

A

The amino acid side chain (R-group)

The side chain varies among different amino acids, giving each its unique properties.

235
Q

Fill in the blank: The amino acid side chain is also known as the _______.

236
Q

List three amino acids mentioned in the content.

A
  • Glycine
  • Threonine
  • Valine
237
Q

True or False: The R-group is the same for all amino acids.

A

False

Each amino acid has a distinct R-group that contributes to its unique characteristics.

238
Q

What is the significance of the R-group in amino acids?

A

It determines the amino acid’s chemical and physical properties.

239
Q

Name an amino acid that contains sulfur in its side chain.

240
Q

What is the role of the amino acid side chain in protein structure?

A

It influences folding, stability, and interactions of proteins.

241
Q

Fill in the blank: Lysine is an example of an _______ amino acid.

242
Q

List two additional amino acids mentioned.

A
  • Asparagine
  • Threonine
243
Q

How many amino acids are known to exist in nature?

A

Approximately 140 amino acids

This includes both standard and non-standard amino acids.

244
Q

How many different amino acids are used to make proteins?

A

20 different amino acids

These are the standard amino acids encoded by the genetic code.

245
Q

What dictates the structure and function of a protein?

A

Amino acid composition

The specific sequence and types of amino acids determine the protein’s 3D shape and biological role.

246
Q

What is the requirement for protein itself?

A

There is no requirement for protein itself

Protein is not directly required; rather, it is the amino acids that are essential.

247
Q

What are the contributions of protein to the body?

A

They contribute to the body’s amino acid pool

Proteins are broken down into amino acids, which are then utilized by the body.

248
Q

How many amino acids are used in protein synthesis?

A

20 amino acids

These amino acids are fundamental for various biological functions.

249
Q

What are essential amino acids?

A

Some amino acids must be obtained through the diet

Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by the body.

250
Q

What can be produced endogenously in the body?

A

Some amino acids can be produced endogenously (de novo synthesis)

De novo synthesis refers to the body’s ability to create certain amino acids.

251
Q

What are non-essential amino acids?

A

Amino acids that can be produced endogenously by transamination of a carbon skeleton

252
Q

What do non-essential amino acids rely on for their production?

A

Availability of precursors

253
Q

What are conditionally essential amino acids?

A

Amino acids whose rate of endogenous production is insufficient under certain circumstances, making them essential

254
Q

Fill in the blank: Essential amino acids must be provided in the _______.

255
Q

True or False: Non-essential amino acids cannot be produced by the body.

256
Q

Fill in the blank: Conditionally essential amino acids become essential when the rate of endogenous production is not _______.

A

[sufficient]

257
Q

True or False: Essential amino acids can be produced by the body.

258
Q

Fill in the blank: Non-essential amino acids can be produced endogenously by _______.

A

[transamination of a carbon skeleton].

259
Q

What happens to conditionally essential amino acids under certain circumstances?

A

They become essential due to insufficient endogenous production.

260
Q

List the essential amino acids.

A
  • Leucine (Leu)
  • Isoleucine (Ile)
  • Valine (Val)
  • Phenylalanine (Phe)
  • Threonine (Thr)
  • Methionine (Met)
  • Tryptophan (Trp)
  • Lysine (Lys)

These amino acids are crucial for various bodily functions and must be included in the diet.

261
Q

List the conditionally indispensable amino acids.

A
  • Tyrosine (Tyr)
  • Glycine (Gly)
  • Serine (Ser)
  • Cysteine (Cys)
  • Arginine (Arg)
  • Glutamine (Gln)
  • Asparagine (Asn)
  • Proline (Pro)

These amino acids may become essential during periods of stress, illness, or rapid growth.

262
Q

What are dispensable amino acids?

A

Amino acids that can be synthesized by the body and do not need to be obtained from the diet

Examples include Glutamic acid, Alanine, and Aspartic acid.

263
Q

List the dispensable amino acids.

A
  • Glutamic acid (Glu)
  • Alanine (Ala)
  • Aspartic acid (Asp)

These amino acids are produced by the body and are not essential in the diet.

264
Q

How many total amino acids are there?

A

20 amino acids

This total includes essential, conditionally indispensable, and dispensable amino acids.

265
Q

What is protein quality?

A

Not all proteins have the same capacity to meet the demands for total protein and essential amino acids

Protein quality refers to how well a protein source provides the necessary amino acids for the body.

266
Q

Why is it important to consume high-quality protein?

A

It is important the protein consumed is of good quality

High-quality proteins provide essential amino acids necessary for various bodily functions.

267
Q

What are the major determinants of the nutritional quality of food proteins?

A
  • The content of essential amino acids (complete/incomplete foods)
  • The digestibility of the food source

Complete proteins contain all essential amino acids, while incomplete proteins lack one or more.

268
Q

What does digestibility of a protein source refer to?

A

The extent to which the amino acids are available to the host metabolism

Higher digestibility means more amino acids are absorbed and utilized by the body.

269
Q

Fill in the blank: The content of _______ is a major determinant of the nutritional quality of food proteins.

A

[essential amino acids]

Essential amino acids are those that must be obtained through diet.

270
Q

What are complete protein foods?

A

Foods that contain all essential amino acids in sufficient quantities for human requirements

Examples include poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy.

271
Q

What are incomplete protein foods?

A

Foods that lack one or more essential amino acids

Often found in plant sources such as corn and legumes.

272
Q

Give an example of a complete protein food.

A

Poultry

Other examples include fish, eggs, and dairy.

273
Q

Give an example of an incomplete protein food.

A

Corn

Other examples include legumes.

274
Q

True or False: All plant sources are complete proteins.

A

False

Most plant sources are incomplete proteins.

275
Q

Fill in the blank: Foods that provide all essential amino acids are known as _______.

A

[complete protein foods]

276
Q

Fill in the blank: Foods that lack one or more essential amino acids are known as _______.

A

[incomplete protein foods]

277
Q

What challenge do vegetarians and vegans face regarding protein?

A

They may have difficulty obtaining sufficient essential amino acids

Essential amino acids are those that cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from food sources.

278
Q

What must vegetarians and vegans do to ensure they get all essential amino acids?

A

Must consume plant sources that together contain all essential amino acids

This means combining different plant-based foods to achieve a complete amino acid profile.

279
Q

What are limiting amino acids?

A

Amino acids that are present in insufficient amounts in a food source

Limiting amino acids can restrict the overall protein quality of a diet.

280
Q

List some examples of limiting amino acids.

A
  • Methionine
  • Tryptophan
  • Lysine
  • Cysteine

These amino acids may be less abundant in certain plant-based protein sources.

281
Q

What are complete foods?

A

Foods that contain all essential amino acids in sufficient quantities

Examples include animal-based proteins and some plant sources like quinoa and soy.

282
Q

What are incomplete foods?

A

Foods that lack one or more essential amino acids

Most plant-based proteins are considered incomplete, requiring combinations to achieve completeness.

283
Q

What does PDCAAS stand for?

A

Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score

PDCAAS is a method used to estimate protein quality.

284
Q

What is the PDCAAS value range?

A

0 to 1

1 indicates the highest protein quality, and 0 indicates the lowest protein quality.

285
Q

What is the PDCAAS value for Casein?

286
Q

What is the PDCAAS value for Whey?

287
Q

What is the PDCAAS value for Soy Protein?

288
Q

What is the PDCAAS value for Beef?

289
Q

What is the PDCAAS value for Soybeans?

290
Q

What is the PDCAAS value for Fruits?

291
Q

What is the PDCAAS value for Whole Wheat?

292
Q

What is the PDCAAS value for the lowest protein quality food listed?

293
Q

Fill in the blank: The PDCAAS is a ratio of food’s essential amino acid content to requirements corrected for _______.

A

digestibility

294
Q

What percentage of total protein intake in developed countries comes from animal protein foods?

A

60-70%

This indicates the reliance on animal sources for protein in developed nations.

295
Q

What percentage of total protein intake in developing countries comes from plant proteins?

A

60-80%

This highlights the importance of plant-based proteins in these regions.

296
Q

What is the dominant source of plant proteins in developing countries?

A

Cereals

Cereals are the primary source of protein for many populations in developing nations.

297
Q

What is the Kieldahl Method used for?

A

Estimation of total protein

The Kieldahl Method measures nitrogen content to estimate protein levels.

298
Q

What is the key assumption of the Kieldahl Method?

A

Only molecules that contain nitrogen in significant amounts in plant and animal tissues are amino acids (proteins)

This assumption underlies the method’s application in protein estimation.

299
Q

What is the Kieldahl method used for?

A

Estimation of total protein

The Kieldahl method measures nitrogen content to estimate protein levels in food.

300
Q

What are the three main steps in the Kieldahl method?

A
  • Digestion
  • Distillation
  • Titration

Each step is crucial for accurately measuring nitrogen content.

301
Q

Fill in the blank: The conversion factor for nitrogen to protein is used to calculate _______.

A

% Protein

This conversion is essential for understanding protein content based on nitrogen measurements.

302
Q

What is the first step in the Kieldahl method for protein estimation?

A

Digestion of organic nitrogen with sulfuric acid

Kieldahl method involves converting organic nitrogen into ammonium sulfate through digestion with sulfuric acid.

303
Q

What are the products of the digestion process in the Kieldahl method?

A

Ammonium sulfate, water, and carbon dioxide

The digestion of organic nitrogen with sulfuric acid results in (NH4)2SO4, H2O, and CO2.

304
Q

Fill in the blank: In the Kieldahl method, organic N (food) is combined with _______.

305
Q

What is the chemical reaction for distillation in Kieldahl protein estimation?

A

(NH4)2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2NH3

306
Q

What does Kieldahl protein estimation measure?

A

Protein content in food samples

307
Q

Fill in the blank: The Kieldahl method involves the use of _______ and sodium hydroxide.

308
Q

True or False: Kieldahl protein estimation involves the formation of ammonia.

309
Q

List the products formed in the Kieldahl protein estimation distillation.

A
  • Na2SO4
  • 2H2O
  • 2NH3
310
Q

What is the chemical formula for ammonia?

A

NH3

Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen.

311
Q

What is formed when ammonia reacts with boric acid?

A

Ammonium borate complex

This complex is significant in the Kieldahl method for protein estimation.

312
Q

What is the role of boric acid in the Kieldahl protein estimation method?

A

It reacts with ammonia to form ammonium borate complex

Boric acid is essential for capturing ammonia released during protein digestion.

313
Q

Fill in the blank: The Kieldahl method is used for _______ estimation.

A

Protein

This method quantifies the nitrogen content in organic compounds.

314
Q

True or False: Boric acid is not involved in the Kieldahl method.

A

False

Boric acid plays a crucial role in the process.

315
Q

What complex is formed during the Kieldahl method involving ammonia?

A

Ammonium borate complex

This complex is important for the subsequent analysis of nitrogen content.

316
Q

What is the Kieldahl method used for?

A

Protein estimation

The Kieldahl method is a widely used technique for determining the nitrogen content in organic compounds, which is then used to estimate protein content.

317
Q

What is the chemical reaction involved in the Kieldahl protein estimation?

A

NH4*: H3BO3 + HCl

This reaction involves the formation of an ammonium borate complex, which is key in the protein estimation process.

318
Q

What is produced when NH4Cl reacts with H3BO3?

A

Ammonium borate complex

The reaction of ammonium chloride with boric acid leads to the formation of this complex, essential for the Kieldahl method.

319
Q

Fill in the blank: The Kieldahl method involves titration with _______.

320
Q

True or False: The Kieldahl method is only applicable for estimating protein in animal sources.

A

False

The Kieldahl method can be used for a variety of food sources, including plant-based proteins.

321
Q

What is the significance of color change in titration during the Kieldahl method?

A

Indicates endpoint of titration

The color change signals that the reaction has reached completion, allowing for accurate measurement.

322
Q

What does the Kjeldahl Method measure?

A

Nitrogen content in food samples

The Kjeldahl Method is a widely used technique for determining the nitrogen content, which can then be converted to protein content.

323
Q

What is the formula for calculating % Nitrogen in a food sample using the Kjeldahl Method?

A

% Nitrogen in food sample = %Nitrogen → % Protein (Conversion Factor)

This formula indicates the relationship between nitrogen content and protein content in food.

324
Q

True or False: The Kjeldahl Method is a direct method for measuring protein content.

A

False

The Kjeldahl Method is considered an indirect method for determining protein content based on nitrogen measurement.

325
Q

What is the conversion factor used to convert nitrogen measured by the Kjeldahl method into protein?

A

The conversion factor is 6.25

This factor is derived from the average nitrogen content in protein.

326
Q

What is the nitrogen content in protein under ideal conditions?

A

About 16%

This percentage is used to calculate the protein content from nitrogen measurements.

327
Q

To calculate the amount of protein from nitrogen, what operation is performed?

A

Multiply the measured nitrogen value by 6.25

This provides an estimate of the protein content based on nitrogen measurement.

328
Q

Fill in the blank: The nitrogen content in protein is about ______ under ideal conditions.

A

16%

This figure is essential for converting nitrogen to protein.

329
Q

What are the protein conversion factors for wheat whole meal?

A

5.70

This value represents the amount of protein in grams per 100 grams of wheat whole meal.

330
Q

What is the protein conversion factor for macaroni, spaghetti, and wheat pastes?

A

4.38

This indicates the protein content for these specific wheat products.

331
Q

What is the protein conversion factor for rice (all products)?

A

5.83

This value applies to all types of rice products.

332
Q

What is the protein conversion factor for milk (all fresh or dry)?

A

6.38

This includes both fresh and dry milk products.

333
Q

What is the protein conversion factor for cheese (all types)?

A

6.38

This applies to all varieties of cheese.

334
Q

What is the protein conversion factor for butter and margarines?

A

6.38

This indicates the protein content for butter and margarine products.

335
Q

What is the protein conversion factor for peanuts?

A

5.40

This value represents the protein content specific to peanuts.

336
Q

What is the protein conversion factor for soybeans (all products)?

A

5.71

This applies to all soybean products.

337
Q

What is the protein conversion factor for almonds?

A

5.18

This indicates the protein content for almonds.

338
Q

What is the protein conversion factor for Brazil nuts?

A

5.46

This value applies to Brazil nuts specifically.

339
Q

What is the protein conversion factor for coconut?

A

5.30

This applies to all coconut products.

340
Q

What is the protein conversion factor for chestnuts?

A

5.30

This indicates the protein content in chestnuts.

341
Q

What is the protein conversion factor for sesame seeds?

A

5.30

This applies to sesame seeds specifically.

342
Q

What is the protein conversion factor for sunflower seeds?

A

5.30

This applies to sunflower seeds.

343
Q

What is the protein conversion factor for other seeds?

A

6.25

This value represents the protein content for various other seeds.

344
Q

What was the US pet food contamination incident?

A

A significant food safety incident in 2007 involving contaminated pet food.

345
Q

What was the tainted milk powder incident?

A

A food safety incident in China in 2008 involving contaminated milk powder.

346
Q

What is melamine?

A

A substance with high nitrogen content used to falsify higher nitrogen content in food.

347
Q

Fill in the blank: The substance added to food to falsify higher nitrogen content is _______.

348
Q

True or False: The US pet food contamination incident occurred in 2008.

349
Q

True or False: Melamine is a substance with low nitrogen content.

350
Q

What is a standard method used for testing protein content in foods?

A

A standard method for testing protein content in foods.

351
Q

Why does the standard method for testing protein content not provide the true protein content?

A

The nitrogen measured may not only be converted from protein.

Nutrition (17 decks)

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