Electrolytes And Fluid Balance Flashcards
1
Q
What is the chemical formula for water?
A
H2O
2
Q
What shape do water molecules have?
A
‘V’ shape
3
Q
What is the bond angle in a water molecule?
A
104.45°
4
Q
What is the bond length of the hydrogen-oxygen bond in water?
A
95.84 pm
5
Q
What is the electronegativity of oxygen and nitrogen?
A
High
Electronegativity refers to the attraction of electrons by an atom.
6
Q
What is the electronegativity of hydrogen and carbon?
A
Low
Electronegativity indicates how strongly an atom can attract electrons.
7
Q
What charge does oxygen carry in a molecule?
A
Partial negative charge
This indicates that oxygen attracts electrons more strongly than hydrogen.
8
Q
What charge do hydrogen atoms carry in a molecule?
A
Partial positive charge
This indicates that hydrogen atoms have a weaker attraction for electrons compared to oxygen.
9
Q
Electrons are pulled toward which element in a water molecule?
A
Oxygen
This results in a polar covalent bond where oxygen is partially negative and hydrogen is partially positive.
10
Q
What type of attraction occurs between polar molecules?
A
Hydrogen bonds
Polar molecules attract through oppositely charged poles.
11
Q
What is the non-covalent attraction between polar water molecules called?
A
Hydrogen Bonding
This describes the interaction that occurs due to the polarity of water.
12
Q
What is the charge distribution in water molecules?
A
Water molecules have a slight negative charge around the oxygen atom and a slight positive charge around the hydrogen atoms.
13
Q
What type of bonding occurs between water molecules due to their charge distribution?
A
Hydrogen bonding.
14
Q
Why do water molecules organize themselves in a specific way?
A
Because of the slight charges and the attraction between opposites.
15
Q
Fill in the blank: Water molecules have a slight _______ charge around the oxygen atom.
A
negative
16
Q
Fill in the blank: Water molecules have a slight _______ charge around the hydrogen atoms.
A
positive
17
Q
True or False: Opposite charges in water molecules repel each other.
A
False
18
Q
What is the dissociation equation of a water molecule?
A
H2O → H+ + OH-
This equation represents the process by which water molecules split into hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions.
19
Q
How often do water molecules dissociate?
A
One in every 10 million water molecules
This indicates a very low rate of dissociation in pure water.
20
Q
What is the concentration of H+ ions in neutral water?
A
1 x 10^-7
This concentration corresponds to a neutral pH level of 7.
21
Q
What is the pH level of pure water?
A
7
A pH of 7 indicates that the solution is neutral, neither acidic nor basic.
22
Q
Fill in the blank: The ions produced from the dissociation of water are _______ and _______.
A
H+ and OH-
These ions are crucial for understanding acid-base chemistry in solutions.
23
Q
What percentage of a 160-lb man is made up of water?
A
45-75 percent
This range indicates that water constitutes a significant portion of body weight.
24
Q
How much water is in a 160-lb man?
A
99 lbs
This is the approximate amount of water in a typical male of this weight.
25
What factors influence water levels in the human body?
Multiple factors including age, sex, body composition, and physical activity
## Footnote
These factors can affect hydration status and overall fluid balance.
26
How much protein is in a 160-lb man?
27 lbs
## Footnote
Protein is a crucial component of body mass and contributes to various physiological functions.
27
How much fat is in a 160-lb man?
24 lbs
## Footnote
This amount reflects the energy storage and insulation functions of fat in the body.
28
How much do minerals and glycogen weigh in a 160-lb man?
70 lbs
## Footnote
Minerals and glycogen are essential for metabolic processes and maintaining fluid balance.
29
What percentage of the body composition is water?
60%
## Footnote
Water is the primary component of body composition.
30
What are the main components of body composition and their percentages?
* 60% water
* 20% lipids
* 15% proteins
* 5% glucose and minerals
## Footnote
These percentages indicate the distribution of different substances in the body.
31
What percentage of fat is comprised of water?
Around 10%
## Footnote
This indicates that fat tissue contains a small amount of water.
32
What is the water content of well-hydrated muscles?
75% H2O
## Footnote
Well-hydrated muscles have a high percentage of water, which is crucial for their function.
33
What percentage of bones is made up of water?
32% H2O
## Footnote
Bones also contain a significant amount of water, contributing to their structure.
34
What is the water content of blood?
93% H2O
## Footnote
Blood has a very high water content, essential for its function in the body.
35
True or False: Higher muscle mass correlates with lower water contribution to total body mass.
False
## Footnote
Higher muscle mass and lower fat mass lead to a higher contribution of water to total body mass.
36
What are the major fluid compartments in the body?
2/3 Intracellular fluid (ICF) and 1/3 Extracellular fluid (ECF)
## Footnote
Extracellular fluid (ECF) includes interstitial fluid, plasma, and digestive juices.
37
What percentage of body fluid is intracellular fluid (ICF)?
2/3
38
What percentage of body fluid is extracellular fluid (ECF)?
1/3
39
Name the components of extracellular fluid (ECF).
* Interstitial fluid
* Plasma
* Digestive juices
40
Fill in the blank: The major fluid compartment that accounts for 2/3 of body fluid is _______.
Intracellular fluid (ICF)
41
Fill in the blank: The major fluid compartment that accounts for 1/3 of body fluid is _______.
Extracellular fluid (ECF)
42
What is the role of electrolytes in fluid balance?
Electrolytes help maintain a delicate equilibrium in fluid balance.
43
Define cation.
Cation is a positively charged ion.
44
Define anion.
Anion is a negatively charged ion.
45
What happens when salts like NaCl dissolve in water?
They come apart and form free electrically charged ions.
46
Fill in the blank: Chloride ion is represented as _______.
Cl⁻
47
Fill in the blank: Sodium ion is represented as _______.
Na⁺
48
True or False: Sodium ions are negatively charged.
False
49
True or False: Anions are positively charged ions.
False
50
What is the chemical formula for table salt?
NaCl
51
What are the two main components that maintain fluid balance in the body?
Electrolytes and water
## Footnote
Electrolytes are minerals that carry an electric charge and are essential for various bodily functions.
52
What does ECF stand for?
Extracellular Fluid
## Footnote
ECF is the fluid found outside of cells, which includes interstitial fluid and blood plasma.
53
Which electrolyte is represented by the symbol Na+?
Sodium
## Footnote
Sodium is crucial for maintaining fluid balance and is primarily found in extracellular fluid.
54
Which electrolyte is represented by the symbol K+?
Potassium
## Footnote
Potassium is essential for cellular function and is predominantly found in intracellular fluid.
55
Which electrolyte is represented by the symbol Ca2+?
Calcium
## Footnote
Calcium plays a vital role in muscle contraction, nerve transmission, and blood clotting.
56
Which electrolyte is represented by the symbol Mg2+?
Magnesium
## Footnote
Magnesium is involved in numerous biochemical reactions in the body, including energy production.
57
Which electrolyte is represented by the symbol Cl-?
Chloride
## Footnote
Chloride helps maintain osmotic pressure and is a component of gastric acid.
58
Which electrolyte is represented by the symbol HCO3-?
Bicarbonate
## Footnote
Bicarbonate acts as a buffer to maintain pH balance in the body.
59
Which electrolyte is represented by the symbol HPO4?
Phosphate
## Footnote
Phosphate is important for energy transfer and is a component of DNA and RNA.
60
What is osmosis?
Movement of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane from low solute to high solute concentration until concentrations on both sides are the same
## Footnote
This process is essential for maintaining fluid balance in cells.
61
What happens when the concentrations of solute particles are the same on both sides of a cell membrane?
Water flows equally both into and out of the cell
## Footnote
This condition is known as isotonic equilibrium.
62
What occurs when the concentration inside the cell is greater than outside the cell?
Water flows into the cell to equalize the concentration
## Footnote
This can lead to cell swelling.
63
What happens when the concentration outside the cell is greater than inside the cell?
Water flows out of the cell to equalize the concentration
## Footnote
This can lead to cell shrinkage.
64
What is the role of Na+ in cellular fluid balance?
As Na+ moves out of the cell, it increases extracellular Na+ concentration.
## Footnote
This process causes water to move out of the cell to equalize Na+ concentrations.
65
What happens when a cell begins to swell?
It activates the Na+-K+ pump, moving Na+ out of the cell.
## Footnote
This is a response mechanism to maintain osmotic balance.
66
Describe the function of the sodium-potassium pump.
Na+ binds to a receptor site on the protein pump, ATP energy changes the protein's shape, expelling Na+ outside, while K+ binds to another site, causing K+ to be expelled into the cell.
## Footnote
This mechanism is crucial for maintaining the electrochemical gradient across the cell membrane.
67
Fill in the blank: Water moves out of the cell to equalize _______ concentrations.
Na+
68
What initiates the movement of Na+ out of the cell?
The activation of the Na+-K+ pump due to cell swelling.
## Footnote
This process helps prevent excessive swelling and maintains homeostasis.
69
True or False: The sodium-potassium pump requires energy from ATP.
True
70
What does osmotic pressure refer to in relation to cell function?
The pressure that drives water movement across the cell membrane to balance solute concentrations.
## Footnote
It is a critical factor in maintaining cell shape and function.
71
What are the key ions involved in the sodium-potassium pump?
* Na+
* K+
## Footnote
These ions are essential for various cellular processes, including nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction.
72
Fill in the blank: Na+ is expelled to the _______ of the cell during the pump's action.
outside
73
What triggers the shape change in the sodium-potassium pump?
The binding of Na+ and K+ ions.
## Footnote
This shape change is essential for the transport of these ions across the membrane.
74
What is heat capacity?
The amount of energy required to raise the temperature by 1 degree Celsius
## Footnote
Heat capacity is a critical property in understanding how substances respond to heat.
75
How does the heat capacity of water compare to that of iron?
Water has 3X the heat capacity of iron
## Footnote
This means water can store more heat energy without a significant change in temperature.
76
What does a high heat capacity imply for substances?
More energy is required to cool substances with high heat capacity
## Footnote
This property is crucial for regulating temperature in biological systems.
77
What is a significant implication of water's high heat capacity for the human body?
It takes a lot of heat to change the temperature of the body
## Footnote
This helps maintain stable internal body temperatures despite external changes.
78
What triggers the body's cooling system?
Rise in body temperature
79
What happens to blood vessels when the body cools down?
Blood vessels dilate
80
What process begins to help cool the body?
Sweating
81
What happens to perspiration to aid in cooling?
Perspiration evaporates
82
What factor affects the body's cooling ability?
Humidity
83
What is the pH scale range?
0 - 14
84
What does maintaining pH balance do?
It maintains pH balance in the body.
85
What happens if pH balance is not maintained?
Disruption of bodily functions.
86
What are the components involved in pH balance?
* Carbon dioxide
* Water
* Carbonic acid
* Bicarbonate
87
What is one function of water related to nutrients?
Dissolves Nutrients: ions, sugars, amino acids, water soluble vitamins
## Footnote
Water is essential for the absorption and transport of essential nutrients in the body.
88
How does water contribute to nutrient transportation?
Transports Nutrients: Delivers glucose to cells for energy / transports waste product (urea in urine)
## Footnote
Water plays a crucial role in the circulatory system by helping to deliver nutrients and remove waste.
89
What is one function of water in metabolism?
Provides aqueous environment for metabolism
## Footnote
Water is essential for various metabolic processes to occur effectively.
90
How does water participate in metabolic reactions?
As a substrate and a product
## Footnote
Water can be involved as a reactant in biochemical reactions and can also be produced as a byproduct.
91
What is one function of water related to body tissues?
Protection and lubrication of body tissues
## Footnote
Water serves multiple roles in the body, including acting as a lubricant in various fluids.
92
What fluid protects the brain and spinal cord from shock?
Cerebrospinal fluid
## Footnote
This fluid acts as a cushion for the central nervous system.
93
What is the purpose of amniotic fluid?
Shock absorber surrounding the growing foetus
## Footnote
Amniotic fluid provides a protective environment for the developing fetus.
94
What type of fluid is found around joints to facilitate movement?
Synovial fluid
## Footnote
Synovial fluid reduces friction between joint surfaces.
95
Which body fluid lubricates food during digestion?
Saliva
## Footnote
Saliva contains enzymes that aid in the digestion process.
96
What is the function of tears in the body?
Lubricate and cleanse the eyes
## Footnote
Tears help maintain eye health by providing moisture and removing debris.
97
What is included in adequate water intake?
Drinking water, beverages, and food
## Footnote
Adequate water intake encompasses all sources of hydration.
98
What is the daily fluid intake recommendation for women?
2.0 litres of fluid/day (8 glasses)
## Footnote
This is the general guideline for women's hydration needs.
99
What is the daily fluid intake recommendation for men?
2.5 litres fluid/day (10 glasses)
## Footnote
This reflects the higher hydration needs of men compared to women.
100
How much additional fluid is recommended for pregnant women?
+300 ml/day
## Footnote
This increase accounts for the hydration needs during pregnancy.
101
How much additional fluid is recommended for lactating women?
+700 ml/day
## Footnote
This increase is necessary to support milk production during lactation.
102
Who has higher fluid intake recommendations?
Pregnant women, lactating women, athletes and active people
## Footnote
These groups require more hydration due to increased physical demands or physiological changes.
103
What is the total fluid daily turnover?
2500ml
## Footnote
This includes both fluid intake and output.
104
What is the fluid intake from metabolic processes?
350ml
## Footnote
This refers to the water produced from metabolic reactions.
105
What is the fluid intake from fluids consumed?
1200ml
## Footnote
This includes all liquids ingested throughout the day.
106
What is the water content of foods contributing to fluid intake?
1000ml
## Footnote
This encompasses water obtained from solid food sources.
107
What is the total fluid output?
2500ml
## Footnote
This includes all forms of fluid loss from the body.
108
How much fluid is lost through expired air?
350ml
## Footnote
This is the water vapor lost during respiration.
109
What is the amount of fluid lost through skin/sweat?
850ml
## Footnote
This includes both insensible loss and sweat.
110
What is the faecal loss of fluid?
100ml
## Footnote
This is the amount of water lost in solid waste.
111
What is the urine output in terms of fluid loss?
1200ml
## Footnote
This is the volume of water excreted via urine.
112
What is the moisture content range of raw pork?
53-60%
## Footnote
Moisture content varies based on the cut and preparation of the pork.
113
What is the moisture content range of cherries?
50-70%
## Footnote
Cherries are high in water content, making them hydrating fruits.
114
What is the moisture content of avocados?
74%
## Footnote
Avocados are known for their healthy fats but also contain significant water.
115
What is the moisture content range of chicken?
65-81%
## Footnote
The moisture content can differ depending on the part of the chicken and whether the skin is included.
116
What is the moisture content range for asparagus?
90-95%
## Footnote
Asparagus has one of the highest water contents among vegetables.
117
What is the moisture content range of broccoli?
85-90%
## Footnote
Broccoli is both nutritious and hydrating due to its high water content.
118
What is the moisture content range for bananas?
90-95%
## Footnote
Bananas are a popular fruit with a high water percentage.
119
What is the moisture content range for fish?
74-80%
## Footnote
Fish muscle proteins have a considerable water content, contributing to their texture.
120
What is the moisture content range for raw retail cuts of beef?
85-90%
## Footnote
Moisture content can vary based on the cut and preparation method.
121
What is the moisture content range for lettuce?
90-95%
## Footnote
Lettuce is often used in salads due to its crisp texture and high water content.
122
Fill in the blank: The moisture content of _______ is 80-85%.
chicken, all classes, raw meat without skin
123
Fill in the blank: The moisture content of _______ is 50-70%.
cherries
124
True or False: Avocados have a moisture content of 74%.
True
125
True or False: Broccoli has a lower moisture content than chicken.
False
126
What are the main components of the kidney?
Cortex, Medulla, Renal pelvis
## Footnote
These structures play essential roles in kidney function.
127
What is the function of the kidneys?
Excrete waste products
## Footnote
Waste products include ammonia, uric acid, urea, and creatinine.
128
What waste products do the kidneys excrete?
* Ammonia
* Uric acid
* Urea
* Creatinine
## Footnote
These substances are filtered out of the blood.
129
How do the kidneys filter waste products?
Via filtration
## Footnote
This process occurs in the nephrons.
130
What is the role of nephrons in the kidneys?
Filter waste products
## Footnote
Nephrons are the functional units of the kidney.
131
What is the renal artery's function?
Carry blood to the kidneys
## Footnote
It supplies oxygenated blood to the renal tissues.
132
What is the role of the renal vein?
Carry blood away from the kidneys
## Footnote
It transports deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
133
What is the purpose of the ureter?
Transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder
## Footnote
Each kidney has one ureter.
134
Fill in the blank: The renal _______ collects urine from the kidney.
pelvis
## Footnote
The renal pelvis is the funnel-like structure at the center of the kidney.
135
What is Bowman's capsule?
A structure in the nephron that encases the glomerulus
## Footnote
It is involved in the filtration of blood to form urine.
136
What is the function of the nephron?
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney responsible for filtering blood and forming urine
## Footnote
Each kidney contains about a million nephrons.
137
What is the glomerulus?
A network of capillaries located within Bowman's capsule
## Footnote
It plays a crucial role in the filtration of blood.
138
What is the role of the afferent arteriole?
It carries blood into the glomerulus
## Footnote
The afferent arteriole is responsible for supplying blood for filtration.
139
What does the efferent arteriole do?
It carries blood away from the glomerulus
## Footnote
This helps regulate blood flow and pressure within the nephron.
140
What is the descending limb of the loop of Henle?
The part of the loop of Henle that descends into the medulla
## Footnote
It is permeable to water but not to solutes.
141
What is the ascending limb of the loop of Henle?
The part of the loop of Henle that ascends back towards the cortex
## Footnote
It is impermeable to water and actively transports sodium and chloride ions.
142
What is the proximal tubule?
The segment of the nephron that reabsorbs most of the filtrate
## Footnote
It reabsorbs water, ions, and nutrients.
143
What is the distal tubule?
The segment of the nephron that further modifies the filtrate
## Footnote
It plays a role in the regulation of potassium, sodium, and pH.
144
What is the collecting duct?
The structure that collects urine from multiple nephrons
## Footnote
It is involved in the final concentration of urine.
145
What are the main components of filtrate?
H2O, Salts (NaCl, etc.), HCO3- (bicarbonate), Urea, Glucose, amino acids, Some drugs
## Footnote
Filtrate is the fluid that passes through the glomerular capsule and contains various substances that are reabsorbed or secreted in the nephron.
146
What is the process by which substances are moved from the blood into the filtrate?
Secretion (active transport)
## Footnote
Secretion is an important process in the kidneys that helps to eliminate waste products and maintain electrolyte balance.
147
Which part of the nephron is primarily responsible for reabsorption?
Proximal tubule
## Footnote
The proximal tubule reabsorbs a significant amount of water, glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes.
148
Fill in the blank: The _______ is responsible for the concentration of urine.
Loop of Henle
## Footnote
The Loop of Henle plays a critical role in creating a concentration gradient in the medulla, which is essential for water reabsorption.
149
What ions are primarily reabsorbed in the distal tubule?
NaCl, HCO3-
## Footnote
The distal tubule adjusts the composition of urine by reabsorbing sodium chloride and bicarbonate.
150
True or False: The collecting duct is involved in the secretion of H+ and K+.
True
## Footnote
The collecting duct fine-tunes the composition of urine and helps regulate acid-base balance.
151
What substances are primarily excreted in urine?
H2O, Urea, NaCl
## Footnote
Urine is composed of waste products filtered and processed by the kidneys, including excess water and salts.
152
What mechanism allows for the movement of water in the nephron?
Passive transport
## Footnote
Water follows osmotic gradients and is reabsorbed through passive transport mechanisms in various parts of the nephron.
153
What types of transport are involved in the reabsorption process?
Active transport, Passive transport
## Footnote
Both active and passive transport mechanisms are essential for the reabsorption of vital substances in the nephron.
154
Fill in the blank: The _______ collects urine before it moves to the renal pelvis.
Collecting duct
## Footnote
The collecting duct is the final segment of the nephron that collects urine from multiple nephrons.
155
What is the role of HCO3- in the nephron?
Buffering blood pH
## Footnote
Bicarbonate ions play a crucial role in maintaining the acid-base balance in the body.
156
What is water balance?
Water balance is achieved through:
* Regulation of fluid excretion
* Regulation of blood volume and pressure
* Thirst
* Water reabsorption in the GI tract
## Footnote
Water balance is crucial for maintaining homeostasis in the body.
157
Which factors are involved in achieving water balance?
Water balance is achieved through:
* Regulation of fluid excretion
* Regulation of blood volume and pressure
* Thirst
* Water reabsorption in the GI tract
## Footnote
Each factor plays a significant role in maintaining hydration and overall health.
158
What detects too little water in the blood?
Hypothalamus
159
What hormone does the pituitary gland release when there is too little water in the blood?
ADH
160
What is the effect of ADH on blood water levels?
Blood water level returns to normal
161
How do kidneys respond to maintain blood water levels?
Less water is lost in urine
162
What is the concentration of urine when the kidneys retain more water?
Urine is more concentrated
163
Fill in the blank: The _______ maintains blood water level.
[kidneys]
164
True or False: The hypothalamus is responsible for detecting too much water in the blood.
False
165
What happens when there is too much water in the blood?
Not specified in the text
166
What is another name for Antidiuretic hormone?
Vasopressin
167
What type of physiological effect does Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) have?
Vasoconstrictor
168
Is Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) more sensitive to blood volume or plasma osmolarity?
Plasma osmolarity
169
What triggers the release of Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?
Large loss of blood
170
Name one factor that can trigger the release of Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
Nausea
171
Name another factor that can trigger the release of Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
Drugs
172
True or False: Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is less sensitive to plasma osmolarity than blood volume.
False
173
What system regulates blood volume and pressure?
Renin-angiotensin system
## Footnote
The renin-angiotensin system is crucial for maintaining blood pressure and fluid balance.
174
What triggers the renin-angiotensin system?
Drop in blood pressure and drop in fluid volume
## Footnote
These drops signal the kidneys to release renin.
175
Where is angiotensinogen produced?
Liver
## Footnote
Angiotensinogen is the precursor to angiotensin I.
176
What enzyme is released from the lungs to convert angiotensin I?
ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme)
## Footnote
ACE converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II.
177
What effect does angiotensin II have on blood vessels?
Stimulates vasoconstriction (narrowing)
## Footnote
This action increases blood pressure.
178
What does angiotensin II stimulate in the adrenal gland?
Release of aldosterone
## Footnote
Aldosterone plays a key role in sodium and water balance.
179
What does aldosterone do in the kidneys?
Stimulates reabsorption of salt (NaCl) and water (H2O)
## Footnote
This reabsorption helps to increase blood volume and pressure.
180
Fill in the blank: Renin acts on angiotensinogen to form _______.
angiotensin I
## Footnote
This is the first step in the renin-angiotensin system.
181
True or False: Angiotensin II decreases blood pressure.
False
## Footnote
Angiotensin II actually increases blood pressure through vasoconstriction.
182
What are the four major stimuli for thirst?
* Increased osmolarity of fluid surrounding osmoreceptors in hypothalamus
* Reduced blood volume and pressure
* Increased angiotensin 2
* Dryness of the mouth and mucous membranes lining the oesophagus
## Footnote
These stimuli trigger the thirst mechanism in the body, indicating a need for fluid intake.
183
What is the primary function of water reabsorption in the GI tract?
Manages many litres of fluid each day
## Footnote
Water reabsorption is crucial to prevent rapid dehydration.
184
What would happen if all fluids from the GI tract were excreted?
Would dehydrate rapidly
## Footnote
This highlights the importance of fluid balance in the body.
185
Which parts of the intestine are responsible for reabsorbing most of the water?
Small and large intestines
## Footnote
These structures play a key role in maintaining hydration.
186
What effect do excess water intake and diuretics have on antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secretion?
They decrease the secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
## Footnote
Diuretics include substances like alcohol and caffeine.
187
What happens to ADH levels when there is a fall in ADH?
The kidneys concentrate solutes in extracellular fluid by excreting water.
188
What are the two main actions of the kidneys in response to decreased ADH levels?
* Decrease permeability so collecting ducts and tubules retain water for excretion
* Excrete large volumes of dilute urine
189
True or False: Alcohol and caffeine increase the secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
False
190
Fill in the blank: A fall in ADH levels signals the kidney to _______.
[excrete water]
191
How do the kidneys correct the initial decreased concentration of solutes in extracellular fluid?
By concentrating solutes through water excretion.
192
What is a major killer worldwide?
Dehydration
## Footnote
Dehydration contributes significantly to mortality rates globally.
193
Which infections are linked to dehydration?
Gastrointestinal infections
## Footnote
These infections can exacerbate dehydration.
194
What physical condition increases the risk of dehydration?
Burns
## Footnote
Burns can lead to fluid loss and higher dehydration risk.
195
Which populations are more at risk for dehydration?
* Older adults
* Infants
## Footnote
These groups have a higher susceptibility to dehydration.
196
What is the first effect of progressive dehydration at 1% body weight loss?
Increased thirst, loss of appetite, discomfort
## Footnote
These are initial signs of dehydration.
197
What happens at 3% body weight loss due to dehydration?
Impatience, decreased blood volume
## Footnote
Decreased blood volume can affect overall health.
198
What are the effects of 4% body weight loss from dehydration?
Nausea, slowing of physical work
## Footnote
Physical performance begins to decline at this stage.
199
At what percentage of body weight loss does difficulty concentrating occur?
5%
## Footnote
Cognitive functions can be impaired by dehydration.
200
What symptoms are observed at 6% body weight loss?
Increasing body temperature, pulse and respiration rate
## Footnote
These are signs of severe dehydration.
201
What happens at 7% body weight loss due to dehydration?
Stumbling, headache
## Footnote
Neurological effects become prominent.
202
At 8% body weight loss, what symptoms are present?
Dizziness, labored breathing
## Footnote
Respiratory function may be compromised.
203
What is the consequence of 9% body weight loss from dehydration?
Weakness, mental confusion
## Footnote
Severe cognitive and physical impairment occurs.
204
What severe condition can occur at 10% body weight loss?
Muscle spasms, indistinct speech
## Footnote
This indicates critical dehydration and potential emergency.
205
What are the critical outcomes of 11% body weight loss due to dehydration?
Kidney failure, poor circulation due to decreased blood volume
## Footnote
These are life-threatening conditions.
206
What are the initial symptoms of water intoxication?
Headaches and confusion
## Footnote
Water intoxication occurs when there is an imbalance in the body's electrolytes due to excessive water intake.
207
What severe conditions can water intoxication lead to?
Seizures and death
## Footnote
These severe outcomes are the result of disrupted electrolyte balance.
208
What typically causes water intoxication?
Rapid consumption of water
## Footnote
This often happens when replacing fluid losses with plain water during prolonged exercise.
209
What glandular disorders can lead to water intoxication?
Untreated glandular disorders
## Footnote
These disorders may affect the body's ability to regulate water balance.
210
How common is water intoxication?
Rare
## Footnote
The kidneys can excrete many liters of fluid per day, making water intoxication uncommon.
211
What are minerals?
Inorganic elemental atoms or ions
## Footnote
Minerals are essential for various bodily functions and are not easily destroyed.
212
What is the daily intake requirement for major minerals?
>100mg/day
## Footnote
Major minerals are required in larger quantities compared to trace minerals.
213
What is the daily intake requirement for trace minerals?
<100mg/day
## Footnote
Trace minerals are needed in smaller amounts but are still crucial for health.
214
What roles do minerals play in the body?
Essential roles in the body
## Footnote
Minerals are involved in a variety of functions including structural, regulatory, and metabolic processes.
215
What is the approximate amount of selected minerals in a 70 kg (154 lb) man?
1,200 grams
## Footnote
This amount varies based on individual dietary intake and physiological needs.
216
What are the two categories of minerals?
* Major minerals
* Trace minerals
## Footnote
These categories are based on the required daily intake amounts.
217
Fill in the blank: Major minerals are required in quantities greater than _______.
100mg/day
218
Fill in the blank: Trace minerals are required in quantities less than _______.
100mg/day
219
What are the primary electrolytes involved in fluid balance?
Sodium, calcium, potassium, chlorine, phosphate, and magnesium
## Footnote
These minerals play essential roles in maintaining various physiological functions.
220
What is one key function of electrolytes?
Maintain fluid balance
## Footnote
Electrolytes help regulate the amount of water in the body.
221
What is another important function of electrolytes?
Maintain blood pH
## Footnote
Electrolytes help to buffer acids and bases to keep blood pH within a narrow range.
222
What role do electrolytes play in the nervous system?
Maintain nerve transmission
## Footnote
Electrolytes are crucial for the generation and conduction of electrical impulses in nerves.
223
How do electrolytes affect muscle function?
They maintain muscle function
## Footnote
Electrolytes are essential for muscle contraction and relaxation.
224
What are the two primary sources of minerals in foods?
Both plants and animal sources
225
What does bioavailability refer to in the context of minerals?
Body adjusts mineral absorption to our needs
226
What is megadosing?
Taking excessively high doses of minerals
227
What is one factor that affects the bioavailability of minerals?
Person's need
228
Fill in the blank: The _______ of the intestinal environment can affect mineral absorption.
Acidity
229
Name two substances that can affect mineral absorption.
* Phytate
* Oxalate
230
What are polyphenols in relation to mineral absorption?
Substances that can hinder mineral absorption
231
What can compete with minerals for absorption in the body?
Other minerals
232
What is sodium classified as?
Essential nutrient
233
What is the chemical formula for table salt?
NaCl
234
What is the major cation in extracellular fluid (ECF)?
Sodium
235
List three functions of sodium.
* Fluid balance
* Blood pressure
* Nerve impulse transmission
236
What is the recommended maximum intake of salt per day?
Not more than 6g (or 2.4g Na)
237
What types of foods are significant sources of sodium?
* Salt
* Processed foods
* Convenience foods
238
What is the recommended nutrient intake (RNI) of sodium for adults?
1600 mg/d
239
What is sodium classified as?
Essential nutrient
240
What is the chemical formula for table salt?
NaCl
241
What is the major cation in extracellular fluid (ECF)?
Sodium
242
List three functions of sodium.
* Fluid balance
* Blood pressure
* Nerve impulse transmission
243
What is the recommended maximum intake of salt per day?
Not more than 6g (or 2.4g Na)
244
What types of foods are significant sources of sodium?
* Salt
* Processed foods
* Convenience foods
245
What is the recommended nutrient intake (RNI) of sodium for adults?
1600 mg/d
246
What percentage of dietary sodium is added during food processing?
75%
## Footnote
This highlights the significant role of food processing in sodium intake.
247
What percentage of dietary sodium occurs naturally in food?
10%
## Footnote
This indicates that only a small portion of sodium is naturally present in foods.
248
What percentage of dietary sodium is used in cooking and at the table?
15%
## Footnote
This shows the contribution of cooking and table use to overall sodium intake.
249
What is hyponatremia?
Condition of low blood sodium concentrations
## Footnote
Hyponatremia can lead to serious health issues if not addressed properly.
250
What are the causes of hyponatremia?
* Severe diarrhoea
* Vomiting
* Intense prolonged sweating with replacement of water but not sodium
## Footnote
These causes lead to a significant loss of sodium in the body.
251
What symptoms are similar to dehydration in hyponatremia?
Symptoms similar to dehydration
## Footnote
Symptoms can include thirst, dry mouth, and fatigue.
252
What happens to cells in severe hyponatremia?
Extracellular fluid moves into cells, causing them to swell
## Footnote
This swelling can lead to seizures and coma if untreated.
253
What is the treatment for hyponatremia?
Replacement of minerals & fluid
## Footnote
This can be achieved through food and intravenous solutions.
254
What is hypernatremia?
High concentration of sodium in the blood
255
What can cause hypernatremia?
Rapid intake of large amount of sodium (e.g. drinking seawater)
256
What is a consequence of hypernatremia?
Hypervolemia - abnormal increase in blood volume
257
What are the symptoms of hypernatremia?
* Edema (swelling)
* Rising in BP
258
In which patients is hypernatremia usually seen?
* Patients with congestive heart failure
* Patients with kidney disease
259
What is hypertension?
Persistent high blood pressure
## Footnote
Hypertension is often a chronic condition that can lead to serious health issues.
260
What dietary factors are associated with hypertension?
* High intake of sodium
* High intakes of fat (especially saturated fat)
## Footnote
These dietary factors can contribute significantly to the development of hypertension.
261
What does DASH stand for?
Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension
## Footnote
The DASH diet is designed to help prevent and manage high blood pressure.
262
What are the key recommendations of the DASH studies for managing hypertension?
* Limit your sodium, fat, and cholesterol
* Increase fruit and vegetable intake
* Consume low-fat dairy foods
## Footnote
Following these recommendations has been shown to significantly lower blood pressure in hypertensive individuals.
263
What is the ideal blood pressure range?
Below 120/80 mmHg
## Footnote
Blood pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) with two numbers: systolic (top number) and diastolic (bottom number).
264
Fill in the blank: A high intake of _______ is associated with hypertension.
sodium
265
True or False: Increasing fruit and vegetable intake can help lower blood pressure.
True
266
What is a significant dietary change recommended for hypertensive individuals?
Increasing fruit and vegetable intake
## Footnote
This change is part of the DASH diet recommendations.
267
What is the key cation in intracellular fluid (ICF)?
Potassium
## Footnote
Potassium plays a crucial role in various physiological functions.
268
List three functions of potassium.
* Muscle contraction
* Nerve impulse transmission
* Regulates blood pressure
## Footnote
These functions are essential for maintaining overall health and bodily functions.
269
What is the recommended dietary intake (RNI) of potassium?
3500 kg/d
## Footnote
This recommendation may vary based on individual health needs.
270
Name three food sources of potassium.
* Unprocessed foods: fruits, vegetables, grains
* Meat
* Fish
## Footnote
These foods are generally rich in potassium.
271
What are some examples of less processed foods that contain potassium?
* Whole milk
* Roast beef
* Fresh corn
* Fresh cucumber
* Fresh peaches
* Wheat flour
## Footnote
These foods provide essential nutrients with lower levels of processing.
272
What are some examples of more processed foods that contain potassium?
* Chocolate pudding
* Corned beef
* Canned corn
* Dill pickle
* Canned peaches
* Whole wheat bread
## Footnote
While these foods provide potassium, they may also contain higher levels of sodium and preservatives.
273
What is the chemical symbol for Potassium?
K
274
What is the atomic weight of Potassium?
39.098
275
What is hypokalemia?
Low blood potassium
276
What is a likely risk factor associated with hypokalemia?
Hypertension risk
277
How can hypokalemia affect acid-base balance?
Can disrupt acid-base balance
278
Who is at risk for Potassium deficiency?
Individuals such as alcoholics, those with eating disorders, strong laxative use, diuretic hypertension medications
279
What are common symptoms of hypokalemia?
* Muscle weakness
* Loss of appetite
* Confusion
280
What is the atomic number of Potassium?
19
281
What is the atomic weight of Potassium?
39.098
282
What is Hyperkalemia?
High blood potassium
283
Is Hyperkalemia common or rare?
Rare
284
What can cause Hyperkalemia?
* Malfunctioning kidney
* Excess intravenous potassium
285
What can severe Hyperkalemia affect?
Can slow heart
286
What is hyperkalemia?
High blood potassium
## Footnote
Hyperkalemia is a condition characterized by elevated levels of potassium in the blood.
287
What are the common causes of hyperkalemia?
* Malfunctioning kidney
* Excess intravenous potassium
## Footnote
These factors can lead to an accumulation of potassium in the bloodstream, resulting in hyperkalemia.
288
What is a potential consequence of severe hyperkalemia?
It can slow heart
## Footnote
Severe hyperkalemia can lead to dangerous heart rhythms and may require immediate medical intervention.
289
Is hyperkalemia a common condition?
Rare
## Footnote
While hyperkalemia can occur, it is not frequently encountered in the general population.
290
What is the atomic symbol for potassium?
K
## Footnote
The letter 'K' is derived from the Latin word 'kalium.'
291
What is the atomic mass of potassium?
39.098
## Footnote
This value represents the average atomic mass of potassium isotopes.
292
What is the daily value of potassium?
Daily Value = 3500 mg
293
Name three food sources of potassium that provide 20% DV or more.
* White beans
* Dates
* Raisins, seedless
294
What is a food source of potassium that is classified as 'high'?
White beans
295
What are some examples of food sources of potassium that provide 10-19% DV?
* Potato, baked
* Yogurt, plain, nonfat
* Tomato juice
* Clams, cooked
* Halibut, cooked
* Banana
* Spinach, raw
* Orange juice, chilled
* Lima beans, cooked
* Milk, 1% milkfat
* Baked beans, canned
* Cantaloupe
* Acorn squash, cooked
* Apricot, fresh
296
Fill in the blank: A medium banana contains ______ mg of potassium.
487 mg
297
How much potassium is in 240 ml (1 cup) of tomato juice?
556 mg
298
True or False: Sweet potatoes are a food source of potassium.
True
299
What is the potassium content in 140 g (½ medium melon)?
374 mg
300
What is the potassium content in 85 g (3 oz) of spinach, raw?
474 mg
301
How much potassium is found in 225 g (1 8-oz container) of yogurt, plain, nonfat?
574 mg
302
List two food sources of potassium that are legumes.
* Lentils
* Baked beans, canned
303
What is chloride not the same as?
'Chlorine'
## Footnote
Chloride is a distinct chemical ion, different from chlorine gas.
304
What is chloride's role in the extracellular fluid (ECF)?
Major anion
## Footnote
Chloride is a key negatively charged ion in the extracellular fluid.
305
What is one of the functions of chloride in the body?
Moves in and out of red blood cells
## Footnote
This movement is essential for maintaining acid-base balance.
306
What is hydrochloric acid commonly known as?
Stomach acid
## Footnote
Hydrochloric acid is crucial for digestion in the stomach.
307
What is the dietary recommendation for chloride intake?
2500 mg/d
## Footnote
This recommendation supports various bodily functions.
308
Name a common food source of chloride.
Table salt
## Footnote
Table salt (sodium chloride) is the primary source of chloride in the diet.
309
What is hypochloremia?
Low chloride levels in the blood
## Footnote
Hypochloremia can lead to various health issues.
310
What condition can frequent vomiting lead to regarding chloride levels?
Hypochloremia
## Footnote
Conditions like bulimia nervosa can cause frequent vomiting, affecting chloride levels.
311
What metabolic condition is associated with hypochloremia?
Metabolic alkalosis
## Footnote
Metabolic alkalosis is characterized by elevated blood pH and bicarbonate levels.
312
What is the atomic number of Calcium?
20
313
What is the atomic weight of Calcium?
40.078
314
What role does Calcium play in the bone structure?
Bone matrix
315
List three functions of Calcium in the human body.
* Nerve function
* Blood clotting
* Muscle contraction
316
Calcium is important for _______ metabolism.
[cellular]
317
What percentage of calcium is found in bones and teeth?
99%
## Footnote
Calcium is crucial for bone structure and health.
318
What is the plasma calcium concentration range in mg/100ml?
9-10.4 mg/100ml
## Footnote
This concentration is vital for various physiological functions.
319
What are the two types of cells involved in bone remodeling?
* Osteoblasts
* Osteoclasts
## Footnote
Osteoblasts are responsible for bone formation, while osteoclasts are involved in bone resorption.
320
Why is adequate calcium intake necessary?
To maintain living tissue and bone structure
## Footnote
Insufficient calcium can lead to weakened bones and other health issues.
321
What process do osteoclasts perform?
Bone resorption
## Footnote
This process is essential for the maintenance and remodeling of bone.
322
What process do osteoblasts perform?
Bone formation
## Footnote
Osteoblasts help in building new bone tissue.
323
Fill in the blank: Calcium is essential for _______.
bone structure
## Footnote
Calcium is a critical mineral for maintaining bone integrity.
324
What is one of the primary functions of calcium in the body?
Nerve function
## Footnote
Calcium is essential for the normal transmission of nerve impulses.
325
How does calcium contribute to muscle contraction?
Flow of calcium inside muscle cells allows them to contract and relax
## Footnote
Calcium facilitates the interaction of myosin and actin for muscle contraction.
326
What triggers the release of neurotransmitters?
Calcium
## Footnote
Calcium plays a crucial role in the process of neurotransmitter release in nerve function.
327
Fill in the blank: Calcium facilitates the interaction of _______ and actin.
myosin
## Footnote
Myosin and actin are proteins that interact during muscle contraction.
328
True or False: Calcium is not involved in nerve function.
False
## Footnote
Calcium is essential for the normal transmission of nerve impulses.
329
What are the functions of calcium in the body?
* Blood clotting
* Cellular metabolism
330
What is the role of calcium in blood clotting?
* Formation of fibrin
* Blood-clotting cascade
* Blood will not clot in the absence of calcium
331
How does calcium contribute to cellular metabolism?
* Binds to and activates calmodulin
* Cell secretions
* Cell division
* Cell proliferation
332
What is the dietary recommendation for calcium intake?
700 mg/d
## Footnote
This is the general recommendation for daily calcium intake for adults.
333
Name three food sources of calcium.
* Milk and dairy products
* Green vegetables
* Tofu
* Fortified foods
## Footnote
These foods are rich in calcium and contribute to meeting dietary recommendations.
334
What is hypocalcemia?
Low levels of calcium in the blood
## Footnote
Hypocalcemia can lead to various health issues, including muscle spasms and seizures.
335
What is hypercalcemia?
High levels of calcium in the blood
## Footnote
Hypercalcemia can cause symptoms such as fatigue, nausea, and confusion.
336
What condition is characterized by weak and brittle bones due to low calcium?
Osteoporosis
## Footnote
Osteoporosis increases the risk of fractures and is often related to inadequate calcium intake.
337
Fill in the blank: The recommended dietary intake for calcium is _______.
700 mg/d
## Footnote
This recommendation is crucial for maintaining bone health.
338
List two potential health issues related to calcium imbalance.
* Hypocalcemia
* Hypercalcemia
## Footnote
Both conditions can have significant health impacts and require management.
339
True or False: Tofu is a good source of calcium.
True
## Footnote
Tofu, especially when fortified, is an excellent plant-based source of calcium.
340
Name one vegetable that is a source of calcium.
Green vegetables
## Footnote
Examples include kale and broccoli, which provide calcium along with other nutrients.
341
What is the Daily Value of calcium?
1,000 mg
342
What qualifies as a high source of calcium?
20% DV or more
343
What qualifies as a good source of calcium?
10-19% DV
344
List three high-calcium foods.
* Tofu, calcium processed
* Yogurt, plain, lowfat
* Milk, nonfat
345
True or False: Spinach is a good source of calcium.
False
346
Fill in the blank: In spinach, oxalate binds calcium and prevents absorption of all but about ______ percent of the plant's calcium.
5
347
List two vegetables that are good sources of calcium.
* Collards, cooked
* Turnip greens, cooked
348
What is the atomic number of Phosphorus?
30.974
349
What are the functions of Phosphorus?
* Bone structure
* Enzymes - phosphorylation
* Component of ATP, DNA, RNA, phospholipids
350
What is the dietary recommendation for Phosphorus intake?
550 mg/d
351
What are some food sources of Phosphorus?
* Meat
* Milk
* Eggs
* Processed foods
352
What condition is characterized by low levels of Phosphorus?
Hypophosphatemia
353
What condition is characterized by high levels of Phosphorus?
Hyperphosphatemia
354
What is the Daily Value (DV) for phosphorus?
1,000 mg
## Footnote
The Daily Value is a reference amount used for nutrition labeling.
355
What food sources of phosphorus are considered high in phosphorus content?
* Cheese, provolone
* Beef liver, cooked
* Yogurt, plain, nonfat
* Sunflower seeds
* Herring, cooked
* Milk, nonfat
* Milk, 1% milkfat
* Milk, 2% milkfat
* Chicken, white meat, cooked
* Beef, ground, extra lean, cooked
* Oysters, cooked
* Lentils, cooked
* Tofu, calcium processed
* Chicken, dark meat, cooked
* All Bran cereal
* Almonds
* Soy milk
* Black beans, cooked
* Peanut butter
## Footnote
Foods providing 20% DV or more are classified as high in phosphorus.
356
True or False: Lentils are a good source of phosphorus.
True
## Footnote
Lentils provide a significant amount of phosphorus.
357
List three food sources that provide a good amount of phosphorus (10-19% DV).
* Chicken, dark meat, cooked
* Soy milk
* Peanut butter
## Footnote
Foods providing 10-19% DV are classified as good sources of phosphorus.
358
What is the atomic symbol for Magnesium?
Mg
359
What is the atomic weight of Magnesium?
24.305
360
List three functions of Magnesium.
* DNA and protein synthesis
* ATP production
* Blood clotting, muscle contraction
361
What is the dietary recommendation for Magnesium intake?
300 mg/d
362
Name four food sources rich in Magnesium.
* Whole grains
* Vegetables
* Legumes
* Tofu
* Seafood
363
What condition is characterized by low levels of Magnesium?
Hypomagnesemia
364
What condition is characterized by high levels of Magnesium?
Hypermagnesemia
365
What is sulfur a component of?
Organic compounds
## Footnote
Sulfur is essential in forming various organic molecules.
366
What role does sulfur play in protein structure?
Forms disulfide bridges between amino acids
## Footnote
These bridges are critical for the stability and function of proteins.
367
What function does sulfur serve in the liver?
Drug-detoxifying pathways
## Footnote
Sulfur contributes to the metabolic processes that detoxify harmful substances.
368
Is sulfur deficiency common?
Unknown
## Footnote
There is plenty of sulfur supplied from protein consumption, making deficiency rare.
369
How is sulfur primarily obtained in the diet?
From protein consumption
## Footnote
Foods rich in protein provide adequate sulfur for bodily functions.
