Final Exam Revie Flashcards
Define anatomy and physiology
Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body and its parts, while physiology is the study of the functions of those parts.
Identify the major levels of organization in organisms, from the simplest to the most complex
The major levels of organization are:
* Chemical level
* Cellular level
* Tissue level
* Organ level
* Organ system level
* Organism level
Name each of the 12 major organ systems and functions of each system
- Integumentary system: protects the body
- Skeletal system: supports and protects organs
- Muscular system: facilitates movement
- Nervous system: controls body activities
- Endocrine system: regulates bodily functions through hormones
- Cardiovascular system: transports blood and nutrients
- Lymphatic system: defends against infection
- Respiratory system: facilitates gas exchange
- Digestive system: processes food and absorbs nutrients
- Urinary system: removes waste and regulates fluid balance
- Reproductive system: produces offspring
- Immune system: protects against disease
Summarize the concept of homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions.
Describe how negative feedback and positive feedback are involved in homeostatic regulation
Negative feedback reduces the output of a system to stabilize it, while positive feedback amplifies a process to drive it to completion.
Use anatomical terms to describe body sections, regions, and relative positions
Anatomical terms include:
* Superior: above
* Inferior: below
* Anterior: front
* Posterior: back
* Medial: towards the midline
* Lateral: away from the midline
* Proximal: closer to the point of attachment
* Distal: farther from the point of attachment
Identify the major body cavities and their subdivisions, and major organs of each
- Dorsal cavity: includes cranial and spinal cavities (brain and spinal cord)
- Ventral cavity: includes thoracic cavity (heart and lungs) and abdominopelvic cavity (digestive organs, reproductive organs)
what does the thoracic cavity have ?
what does the abdominoplevic cavity contain?
thoracic cavity- Right and left pleural cavities
Contain right and left lungs
abdominoplevic cavity-
Peritoneal cavity—chamber within abdominopelvic cavity
abdominal cavity—superior portion
Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones
Contains digestive organs
Pelvic cavity—inferior portion
Medial to pelvic bones
Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder
Recognize the four tissue types and match each to its primary function
- Epithelial tissue: covers and lines surfaces, Covers exposed surfaces,Forms glands
- Connective tissue: supports and binds other tissues, Transports materials, Stores energy, Fills internal spaces
- Muscle tissue: Specialized for contraction
Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and muscular walls of hollow organs - Nervous tissue: transmits signals
Classify epithelium by cell shape and number of layers matching each to its description, function, location
- Simple squamous: single layer, flat cells, found in alveoli
- Stratified squamous: multiple layers, protects against abrasion, found in skin
- Cuboidal: cube-shaped, involved in secretion, found in glands
- Columnar: column-shaped, involved in absorption, found in intestines
Recognize a diagram, slide, or photomicrograph of the following types of epithelium: Simple, Stratified, Transitional
Simple epithelium has a single layer, stratified epithelium has multiple layers, and transitional epithelium can stretch and change shape.
Contrast exocrine and endocrine glands
- Exocrine glands: secrete substances through ducts to external surfaces
- Endocrine glands: release hormones directly into the bloodstream
Identify the general characteristics and locations of connective tissues and classify them by strength and function
- Loose connective tissue: provides support and flexibility, found under skin
- Dense connective tissue: provides strength, found in tendons and ligaments
- Specialized connective tissues: include blood, bone, and cartilage, each with distinct functions
From a diagram, slide, or photomicrograph, recognize the following types of connective tissue: Areolar, Reticular, Adipose, Dense regular and irregular, Blood, Bone, Cartilage
Areolar: loose and flexible; Reticular: supportive framework; Adipose: stores fat; Dense regular: parallel fibers for strength; Dense irregular: irregularly arranged fibers for multi-directional strength; Blood: fluid connective tissue; Bone: rigid structure; Cartilage: flexible support.
Compare and contrast the Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth muscle tissues
- Skeletal muscle: voluntary, striated, attached to bones
- Cardiac muscle: involuntary, striated, found in the heart
- Smooth muscle: involuntary, non-striated, found in walls of hollow organs
Identify the structure and summarize the functions of serous membranes
Serous membranes consist of a layer of mesothelium and connective tissue, and they secrete serous fluid to reduce friction between organs.
What are the components and functions of the integumentary system?
Components include:
* Epidermis
* Dermis
* Hypodermis
* Sweat glands
* Oil glands
* Hair follicles
Functions include:
* Protection
* Sensation
* Temperature regulation
* Excretion
Identify the skin structures from a diagram: Epidermis, Stratum layers, Dermis, Papillary layer, Reticular layer, Hypodermis.
Structures include:
* Epidermis
* Stratum layers
* Dermis
* Papillary layer
* Reticular layer
* Hypodermis
Describe the structure, function and growth of the epidermis.
Structure: outermost layer of skin
Function: provides barrier, protects against pathogens
Growth: continuous regeneration from basal layer
Describe the structure, function and growth of the dermis.
Structure: thicker layer beneath epidermis
Function: supports epidermis, contains blood vessels, nerves
Growth: less regenerative capacity than epidermis
What explains differences in skin color?
Differences are due to:
* Melanin levels
* Blood flow
* Thickness of stratum corneum
Compare and contrast sebaceous and sweat glands.
Sebaceous glands:
* Produce oil (sebum)
* Associated with hair follicles
Sweat glands:
* Produce sweat
* Help regulate body temperature
Describe the temperature regulating mechanism involving the skin.
Mechanisms include:
* Sweating for cooling
* Blood vessel dilation for heat loss
* Blood vessel constriction to retain heat
Identify the parts of a long bone.
Parts include:
* Epiphysis
* Metaphysis
* Diaphysis
* Marrow Cavity
* Periosteum
* Endosteum
Contrast compact and spongy bone.
Compact bone:
* Dense, forms outer layer
* Contains osteons
Spongy bone:
* Lighter, found inside
* Contains trabeculae
Identify the structures of bone from a diagram: Osteon, Lamellae, Canaliculi, Central canal, Perforating canal, Lacunae, Trabeculae.
Structures include:
* Osteon
* Lamellae
* Canaliculi
* Central canal
* Perforating canal
* Lacunae
* Trabeculae
What are the roles of the four different osseous cells?
Roles include:
* Osteoblasts: bone formation
* Osteocytes: maintain bone tissue
* Osteoclasts: bone resorption
* Osteoprogenitor cells: stem cells for bone
What are the types of ribs in the axial skeleton?
True ribs, False ribs, Floating ribs
True ribs are directly attached to the sternum, while false ribs are indirectly attached or not attached at all, and floating ribs do not attach to the sternum.
Identify the parts of the sternum.
Manubrium, Body, Xyphoid
The sternum consists of three main parts which serve as attachment points for ribs and the clavicle.
What is the function of the hyoid bone?
Supports the tongue and assists in swallowing
The hyoid bone is unique as it does not articulate with any other bones.
Identify the bones of the pectoral girdle.
Clavicle, Scapula
The pectoral girdle connects the upper limbs to the trunk.
What are the markings of the clavicle?
Sternal end, Acromial end
These ends connect the clavicle to the sternum and scapula respectively.
List the key structures of the scapula.
Acromion process, Coracoid process, Glenoid cavity, Scapular spine, Medial border, Lateral border, Superior angle, Inferior angle
These features are important for muscle attachment and joint formation.
Identify the major features of the humerus.
Head, Olecranon fossa, Greater tubercle, Lesser tubercle, Lateral epicondyle, Medial epicondyle, Deltoid tuberosity, Lateral condyle (capitulum), Medial condyle (trochlea)
These markings are critical for articulation with the scapula and forearm bones.
What are the features of the ulna?
Head, Olecranon process, Trochlear notch, Styloid process
The ulna is primarily involved in forming the elbow joint.
Identify the features of the radius.
Head, Styloid process, Radial tuberosity
The radius is involved in wrist movement and rotation of the forearm.
What are carpals?
Eight small bones in the wrist
Carpals enable a wide range of wrist movements.
What are metacarpals?
Five long bones in the hand
They form the framework of the palm.
What is the term for the thumb?
Pollex
The pollex is crucial for grasping and manipulating objects.
What are phalanges?
Bones of the fingers
Each finger has three phalanges, while the thumb has two.
Identify the structures of the pelvic girdle (Os Coxa).
Anterior superior iliac spine, Anterior inferior iliac spine, Posterior superior iliac spine, Posterior inferior iliac spine, Iliac crest, Sacroiliac joint, Greater sciatic notch
These structures provide support for the torso and attachment points for the lower limbs.
What are the two ossification processes?
Intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification
Intramembranous ossification occurs directly within connective tissue, while endochondral ossification involves the replacement of cartilage with bone.
What factors summarize the remodeling process?
Stress (weight distribution), Aging, Osteoporosis, Exercise
These factors influence the dynamic process of bone remodeling, affecting bone density and strength.
Identify a cranial bone.
Frontal
The frontal bone is one of the primary cranial bones forming the forehead.
What is the structure associated with the frontal bone?
Supraorbital foramen
The supraorbital foramen is an opening above the orbit of the eye in the frontal bone.
Name a facial bone.
Zygomatic
The zygomatic bone is commonly known as the cheekbone.
What is the purpose of the foramen magnum?
It allows the passage of the spinal cord.
The foramen magnum is a large opening at the base of the skull.
Identify a structure that is part of the mandible.
Mandibular condyle
The mandibular condyle is the uppermost part of the mandible that articulates with the skull.
What are the features of the cervical vertebrae?
C1 (Atlas) and C2 (Axis)
The atlas supports the skull, while the axis allows for rotation of the head.
What is the lamboidal suture?
A fibrous joint between the occipital and parietal bones
The lamboidal suture forms the posterior boundary of the skull.
Fill in the blank: The _____ process is a feature of the temporal bone.
Mastoid
The mastoid process is a bony prominence located behind the ear.
What is the function of the crista galli?
It serves as an attachment point for the falx cerebri.
The crista galli is a vertical projection of the ethmoid bone.
What are the three types of vertebrae in the axial skeleton?
Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar
These vertebrae are distinguished by their location and structural characteristics.
True or False: The sella turcica is a structure found in the sphenoid bone.
True
The sella turcica houses the pituitary gland.
Name a structure associated with the nasal bone.
Nasal concha
The nasal concha, also known as turbinates, are found inside the nasal cavity.
Identify a feature of the lumbar vertebrae.
Large body
Lumbar vertebrae have larger bodies to support more weight.
Fill in the blank: The _____ sinus is associated with the sphenoid bone.
Sphenoidal
The sphenoidal sinus is located behind the nose and below the brain.
What is the role of the ethmoid sinuses?
They help to lighten the skull and warm/moisten the air.
The ethmoid sinuses are small air-filled spaces within the ethmoid bone.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
cauda equina
The cauda equina is a bundle of spinal nerves and spinal nerve roots located in the lumbar region.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
gray commissure
The gray commissure is a bridge of gray matter that connects the two halves of the spinal cord.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
gray horns
Gray horns contain neuronal cell bodies and are involved in processing sensory and motor information.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
columns
Columns refer to the white matter regions of the spinal cord that contain ascending and descending tracts.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
posterior root
The posterior root contains sensory nerve fibers that transmit information to the spinal cord.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
ganglion
A ganglion is a collection of neuronal cell bodies located outside the central nervous system.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
conus medularis
The conus medularis is the tapered end of the spinal cord.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
spinal nerve
Spinal nerves are mixed nerves that carry both sensory and motor information.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
central canal
The central canal is a fluid-filled space in the center of the spinal cord.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
anterior spinal root
The anterior spinal root contains motor fibers that exit the spinal cord.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
posterior spinal root
The posterior spinal root contains sensory fibers that enter the spinal cord.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
rami communicates
Rami communicates are branches of spinal nerves that connect to the sympathetic nervous system.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
posterior median sulcus
The posterior median sulcus is a groove that runs along the back of the spinal cord.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
anterior median fissure
The anterior median fissure is a deep groove that divides the spinal cord into left and right halves.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
lumbar enlargement
The lumbar enlargement is a region of the spinal cord that supplies nerves to the lower limbs.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
sympathetic ganglia
Sympathetic ganglia are clusters of nerve cell bodies in the sympathetic nervous system.
Identify the spinal cord structure: __________.
cervical enlargement
The cervical enlargement is a region of the spinal cord that supplies nerves to the upper limbs.
What is the functional organization of the spinal cord’s white matter and gray matter?
nuclei, ganglia, tracts
Nuclei are clusters of neuronal cell bodies in the CNS, ganglia are in the PNS, and tracts are bundles of axons in the CNS.
What regions do spinal nerves innervate?
cervical plexus, brachial plexus, lumbar plexus, sacral plexus, intercostal nerves, dermatomes
Each plexus contains specific nerves that innervate various body regions.
Trace a simple spinal reflex arc.
Receptor -> Sensory Neuron -> Integration Center -> Motor Neuron -> Effector
This pathway allows for quick reflex actions without direct involvement of the brain.
What is the importance of reflexes?
Regulating body systems
Reflexes help maintain homeostasis and protect the body from harm.
Describe the structure and function of the cranial meninges.
Dura mater, Arachnoid mater, Pia mater
These layers protect the brain and contain cerebrospinal fluid.
How is the brain protected and supported?
Cranial meninges, cerebrospinal fluid
The meninges and CSF provide cushioning and support for the brain.
Identify the brain structure: __________.
medulla oblongata
The medulla oblongata regulates vital functions such as heart rate and respiration.
Identify the brain structure: __________.
cerebellum
The cerebellum is involved in coordination and balance.
Identify the brain structure: __________.
pituitary (hypophysis)
The pituitary gland is the ‘master gland’ that controls various hormonal functions.
Identify the brain structure: __________.
brain stem
The brain stem connects the brain to the spinal cord and regulates many automatic functions.
Identify the brain structure: __________.
pons
The pons relays signals between the cerebellum and the cerebrum and plays a role in sleep.
Identify the brain structure: __________.
thalamus
The thalamus acts as a relay station for sensory information to the cerebral cortex.
Identify the brain structure: __________.
cerebrum
The cerebrum is responsible for higher brain functions such as thought and action.
Identify the brain structure: __________.
diencephalon
The diencephalon includes structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus.
Identify the brain structure: __________.
midbrain
The midbrain is involved in vision, hearing, and motor control.
Identify the brain structure: __________.
hypothalamus
The hypothalamus regulates body temperature, hunger, and circadian rhythms.
Identify the brain structure: __________.
pineal gland
The pineal gland produces melatonin, which regulates sleep patterns.
Identify the brain structure: __________.
ventricles
The ventricles are fluid-filled cavities in the brain that produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid.
Identify the major anatomic features of the cerebrum: __________.
fissures, sulci, lobes, cerebral nuclei, hemispheres, corpus callosum, cortex
These structures are essential for the organization and function of the cerebrum.
Identify the major functional regions of the cerebrum: __________.
general interpretive, prefrontal, visual, auditory, primary somatic motor, primary somatic sensory, speech (motor and sensory), premotor, somatic sensory association
Each region has specific roles in processing sensory information and executing motor functions.
How many pairs of cranial nerves are there?
12 pairs
Each pair has specific functions related to sensory and motor activities.
Specify the components of the afferent and efferent divisions of the nervous system.
Afferent: sensory neurons, Efferent: motor neurons
The afferent division transmits sensory information to the CNS, while the efferent division transmits commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.
What is meant by the soma nervous system?
The part of the nervous system associated with voluntary control of body movements
It includes all the skeletal muscles and the sensory neurons that provide input.
How does a sensory neuron act as a transducer?
Converts stimuli into electrical impulses
Sensory neurons detect changes in the environment and relay information to the CNS.
What is the difference between general and special senses?
General senses are widespread (touch, temperature), Special senses are localized (taste, smell, vision, hearing)
General senses are distributed throughout the body, while special senses are concentrated in specific organs.
Identify the receptors of the general senses: __________.
Mechanoreceptors, Thermoreceptors, Nociceptors, Photoreceptors, Chemoreceptors
Each type of receptor is specialized to detect specific types of stimuli.
Trace the general sensory pathways: __________.
1st order neuron -> 2nd order neuron -> 3rd order neuron
This pathway describes the relay of sensory information from the periphery to the brain.
What is the role of the cerebellum in motor control?
Coordination and balance
The cerebellum integrates sensory information and fine-tunes motor activity.
Identify the location of the motor homunculus: __________.
Precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe
The motor homunculus represents the distribution of motor control for different body parts.
Identify the upper and lower motor neurons: __________.
Upper motor neurons originate in the brain, Lower motor neurons originate in the spinal cord
Upper motor neurons send signals to lower motor neurons, which directly innervate muscles.
