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Tracey's Lecture Notes > Final Exam Prep > Flashcards

Final Exam Prep Flashcards

1
Q

distinguish the difference between ionic, polar covalent, and nonpolar covalent bonds

A

ionic bonds: involves complete transfer of electrons
polar covalent bond: unequal sharing of electrons (such as H2O molecules)
nonpolar covalent bond: equal sharing of electrons

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2
Q

active transport uses ____?

A

ATP

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3
Q

describe the polarity of H2O and what its attractions are

A
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4
Q

describe the polarity of H2O and what its attractions are

A
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5
Q

describe the building blocks and 3 categories carbohydrates can be split into

A

saccharides
1: Monosaccharides (glucose)
2: Disaccharides (sucrose)
>2: Polysaccharides (glycogen)

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6
Q

what is the general function of carbohydrates? what is the purpose of glucose vs glycogen?

A

energy supply

glucose: metabolic energy
glycogen: energy storage

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7
Q

is carbohydrates hydrophilic or phobic?

A

hydrophilic

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8
Q

what are the building blocks for Lipids?

A

glycerol and fatty acids

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9
Q

what are three classes of lipids? what are their functions?

A

phospholipids (cell membranes)
triglycerides (energy storage)
steroids (cell membrane stabilization; hormones)

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10
Q

are lipids hydrophilic or phobic?

A

hydrophobic

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11
Q

describe whether the heads and tails of phospholipids are hydrophilic or phobic

A

heads: hydrophilic
tails: hydrophobic

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12
Q

describe the positioning of the two layers of phospholipids that make up the bilayer

A

heads point outward of each other, and the tails stay touching each other

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13
Q

what are the building blocks of proteins?

A

amino acids

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14
Q

what are the covalent bonds amino acids are linked by?

A

peptide bonds

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15
Q

what are three types of protein chains

A

2: dipeptide
3: tripeptide
>2: polypeptide

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16
Q

what level structure of proteins are amino acids considered?

A

primary structure

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17
Q

what structure are pleats or coils of protein chains considered?

A

secondary structure

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18
Q

where is RNA found?

A

directly outside the nucleus

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19
Q

what is the function of RNA?

A

it carries out the orders for protein synthesis issued by DNA

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20
Q

molecules always want to move from ______ concentration gradient to ______ concentration gradient

A

higher to lower concentration

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21
Q

what is simple diffusion?

A

molecules moving along their concentration gradient

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22
Q

what is facilitated diffusion?

A

involves channels or carriers to facilitate moving proteins that are too polar or highly charged to move through the lipid bilayer
Requires ATP

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23
Q

describe the difference between channel and carrier mediated facilitated diffusion

A

channel: has a gate that allows or obstructs molecules to pass
carrier: changes shape to allow or obstruct

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24
Q

active transport is when…?

A

molecules are actively transported against their concentration gradient using ATP

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25
Q

what is the function of ribosomes?

A

site of protein synthesis

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26
Q

what is the function of rough endoplasmic reticulum?

A

folds and packages proteins

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27
Q

what is the function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

A

site for lipid synthesis

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28
Q

what is the function of Golgi apparatus?

A

modifies, concentrates, and packages vesicles of proteins and lipids received from rough ER and smooth ER
“traffic director”

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29
Q

what is transcription?

A

DNA information encoded into mRNA

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30
Q

what is translation?

A

information from mRNA is decoded and used to assemble proteins

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31
Q

what is mRNA?

A

“half DNA molecule”

carries coded information into cytoplasm

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32
Q

what is rRNA?

A

ribosomes that assists in protein synthesis

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33
Q

what is tRNA?

A

amino acids to ribosomes which decode mRNA message

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34
Q

where can simple epithelia be found?

A

anywhere absorption, secretion, and filtration occur

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35
Q

what organ can simple squamous be found?

A

lung tissue

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36
Q

what organ can simple cuboidal be found?

A

kidneys

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37
Q

what organ can simple columnar be found?

A

digestive tract

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38
Q

where can stratified epithelium be found?

A

skin

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39
Q

where can transitional epithelia be found?

A

anywhere where stretching needs to occur such as urinary organs

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40
Q

where can pseudostratified columnar epithelium be found

A

respiratory tract

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41
Q

what secretory methods are used in merocrine glands and where can they be found?

A

exocytosis

pancreas

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42
Q

what secretory methods are used in apocrine glands and where can they be found?

A

pinch of portions of the cell

mammary glands/ pheromone secretions in groin and armpit

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43
Q

what secretory methods are used in holocrine glands and where can they be found?

A

release entire cell

sebaceous (oil) glands

44
Q

what is the function of areolar tissue?

A

binds epithelial or muscle tissues to underlying structures

also provides blood supply

45
Q

what is the function of dense connective tissue?

A

makes up ligaments and tendons

46
Q

what is the function of reticular connective tissue?

A

framework for lymphatic structures

such as liver, spleen, and lymph nodes

47
Q

where can hyaline cartilage be found?

A

most abundant

articular surfaces of bones, costal cartilages

48
Q

where can elastic cartilage be found?

A

ears

49
Q

where can fibrocartilage be found?

A

intervertebral discs and menisci of knee

50
Q

what other two abnormal structures make up connective tissue of the body?

A

bone and blood

51
Q

what are the two types of glands that sudoriferous glands can work as?

A

apocrine (pheromones)

merocrine (non-odorous sweat glands)

52
Q

what type of gland is the sebaceous glands?

A

holocrine secretion of sebum

53
Q

what are five functions of the skin?

A 
protection
body temp regulation
cutaneous sensation (pain)
blood reservoir
excretion (ridding of salt and water)
54
Q

what is endosteum and periosteum?

A

lines the marrow cavity

lines the outside of bone

55
Q

how does intramembranous ossification occur?

A

direct conversion of mesenchymal tissue into bone

occurs in flat bones such as skull and clavicle

56
Q

how does endochondral ossification occur?

A

within long bones

57
Q

synarthrosis joints are ?

A

immovable

58
Q

amphiarthrosis joints are ?

A

slightly moveable

59
Q

diarthrosis joints are ?

A

freely moveable

60
Q

shoulder and hip are examples of what?

A

ball in socket joints

61
Q

the ulnar/radial joint is what?

A

pivot joint

62
Q

the humeroulnar joint is what?

A

hinge joint

63
Q

the intercarpal joints are what?

A

plane joints

64
Q

the knuckle joint is what?

A

condylar joint

65
Q

the thumb to wrist joint is what?

A

saddle joint

66
Q

what does sarcoplasm refer to?

A

cytoplasm of muscle cell

67
Q

what is the cell membrane of the muscle cell called?

A

sarcolemma

68
Q

what is the function of sarcoplasmic reticulum?

A

mainly the storage of calcium in order for it to be released for contraction of muscle

69
Q

what is the function of T-tubules

A

synchronize the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum due to AP flowing down into the muscle cell

70
Q

what is a sarcomere?

A

a structural unit of a myofibril in striated muscle

71
Q

what is the H zone?

A

myosin only

72
Q

what is the I band?

A

Actin and Z line only

73
Q

what is the A band?

A

full length of myosin including where actin overlaps

74
Q

what is the M line?

A

center-most section of the myosin

75
Q

two other names for muscle cell

A

myocyte or muscle fibers

76
Q

explain how muscle fibers are stimulate to contract by describing events that occur at the neuromuscular junction

A
  1. motor neuron fires an action potential down its axon
  2. voltage-gated Ca channels open, releasing Ca into synaptic vesicles filled with Acetocholine
  3. Influx of Ca triggers vesicles to migrate out into the synaptic cleft through process of exocytosis
77
Q

describe the steps of a cross bridge cycle, including relaxation

A
  1. The action potential that travels along the sarcolemma eventually ends up going down the T tubules and signals the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release its calcium.
  2. calcium then binds to the troponin of the actin, which allows the actin to change shape and expose its “active sites”
  3. myosin can now bind to these active sites (cross-bridge) and allow for contraction of the individual myofibril
  4. Phosphate is released from the head of the myosin allowing the myosin to contract, after the power-stroke it also releases ADP
  5. ATP is required to release myosin head from actin. (during death, without ATP production, rigormortis occurs)
  6. ATPase breaks down ATP from myosin, returning it to Phosphate and ADP. The process of hydrolysis (breaking down) the ATP creates energy and cocks back the myosin head, leaving the myosin ready for another contraction
  7. titan is elastic and allows for myosin to spring back to normal state
78
Q

at resting membrane potential, what is more negative and positive, what is the negative charge exactly at rest?

A

inside it more negative, outside is more positive

-70mV at rest

79
Q

what are graded potentials?

A

depolarization and hyperpolarization

80
Q

describe depolarization and what allows it to occur

A

membrane becomes less negative than resting potential

occurs when gated Na+ channels open. It creates a more positive charge within the cell

81
Q

describe hyperpolarization and when does it occur?

A

membrane becomes more negative than resting potential
occurs when influx of K+ leaves the cell. The anionic proteins within the cell and the influx of K+ leaving creates a more negative charge within the cell membrane

82
Q

what is the voltage threshold that allows for AP to form?

A

-55 mV

83
Q

How does depolarization occur to produce AP?

A

neurons want to reach a voltage of more than -55mV in order to produce an AP
Spatial or temporal summation can occur in order to reach that threshold by pumping Sodium into the postsynaptic terminal.
Once enough sodium (positive ions) is met, voltage-gated Na+ open and allows for depolarization and formation of AP

84
Q

how does repolarization occur?

A

Na+ channels close, and voltage-gated K+ channels open

85
Q

why does hyperpolarization occur?

A

because K+ influxes out of the cell, and the anionic proteins remain inside, it causes a greater negative charge than it began with

86
Q

how does the cell membrane reach resting potential again?

A

Na-K pump uses ATP to force each ion against their concentration gradient to reach equilibrium

87
Q

what occurs during absolute refractory period and can another AP be produced?

A

depolarization occurs and repolarization occurs

no further AP can occur

88
Q

what occurs during relative refractory period?

A

hyperpolarization occurs and redistribution of Na and K begins to occur
AP can occur only with a stronger stimulus

89
Q

what side of the brain is the primary motor cortex? what primary somato-sensory cortex?

A

motor - pre central gyrus

sensory - post-central gyrus

90
Q

name the subdivisions and functions of the diencephalon

A

thalamus: gateway for sensory impulses except smell
hypothalamus: responsible for homeostatic control; Neuro/endo systems

91
Q

note the functions of the midbrain

A

maintains posture
superior colliculus responsible for visual reflexes
inferior colliculus responsible for hearing

92
Q

note the functions of the pons

A

relays sensory impulses to thalamus

center controls rhythm of breathing

93
Q

note the function of the medulla oblongata

A

vital reflex center for cardiac, respiratory, and vasometer

non-vital reflex for coughing, sneezing, swallowing and vomiting

94
Q

what is the main function of the cerebellum?

A

movement;
information related to body position
refining and coordinating muscle activity
coordinating complex movements

95
Q

how do the meninges and cerebrospinal fluid protect the brain?

A

meninges - act as shock-absorber/ keep brain in place

cerebrospinal fluid - act as shock-absorber/ reduces weight of brain

96
Q

how does the blood-brain barrier protect the brain?

A

maintains the right ionic balance within the brain and blocks substances that would disrupt essential neural functions

97
Q

define endoneurium

A

tissue surrounding individual neural axon

98
Q

define perineurium

A

tissue surrounding bundle of neural axons (fasicle)

99
Q

define epineurium

A

tissue surrounding bundle of fascicles

100
Q

ventral root contains_____

A

motor fibers

101
Q

dorsal roots contain_____

A

sensory fibers

102
Q

ventral and dorsal root connect through a foramen in the vertebra to form_____

A

spinal nerve

103
Q

outside the foramen, ventral and dorsal roots join together and form _______

A

small dorsal ramus and large ventral ramus

104
Q

what is a plexus?

A

interlacing nerve networks of various rami

105
Q

what are the names of all the various plexuses

A

cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral

Tracey's Lecture Notes (14 decks)

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