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Tracey's Lecture Notes > Chapter 15 Special Senses > Flashcards

Chapter 15 Special Senses Flashcards

1
Q

what is the bony socket the eye is found within

A

orbit

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2
Q

what are the three “tunics” of the eye?

A

fibrous tunic - sclera + cornea
vascular tunic - choroid +iris + ciliary body
nervous tunic - retina

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3
Q

what is the sclera made of?

A

thick collagen

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4
Q

what is the cornea made of?

A

thin collagen

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5
Q

where does refraction first take place?

A

within the cornea

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6
Q

axons of cells from the retina form what?

A

optic nerve

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7
Q

is the retina single or multi layered?

A

multilayered

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8
Q

what is the anterior cavity made up of?

A

anterior and posterior chamber

aqueous humor

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9
Q

what does the anterior chamber of the eye consist of?

A

between cornea and iris

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10
Q

what does the posterior chamber of the eye consist of?

A

between iris and lens

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11
Q

what is the posterior cavity made of?

A

aka vitreous chamber

made up of vitreous humor

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12
Q

how is aqueous humor made and reabsorbed?

A

produced by ciliary body

reabsorbed through sclera venous sinus (aka: canal of Schlem)

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13
Q

what is the cause of glaucoma?

A

result of build up of aqueous humor which causes pressure build up within the eye which damages retina and optic nerve over time

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14
Q

what is the function of the iris?

A

smooth muscle that controls the amount of light that enters

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15
Q

what is the name of the muscle within the iris responsible for dilation?

A

radial muscle (sympathetic input)

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16
Q

what is the name of the muscle within the iris responsible for constriction?

A

circular muscle (parasympathetic)

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17
Q

what is the cranial nerve responsible for autonomic reflexes of the iris?

A

Oculomotor nerve III

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18
Q

which structure is responsible for the SECOND refractive surface?

A

lens

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19
Q

what are five features of the lens?

A 
transparent
elastic capsule
biconvex
avascular
suspensory ligaments
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20
Q

what are the two functions of the ciliary body?

A

focus the lens

produce aqueous humor

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21
Q

how does the ciliary body and suspensory ligaments work the lens so that you can see a far distant object?

A

ciliary muscle relaxed
suspensory ligaments tight
lens elongated

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22
Q

how does the ciliary body and suspensory ligaments work the lens so that you can see a close-up object?

A

ciliary muscle contracts
suspensory ligaments loosen
lens thickens

THIS IS WHY STUDYING TIRES MY EYES

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23
Q

what does accommodation of the eye mean?

A

the process of changing the shape of the lens in order to focus vision

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24
Q

define emmetropia

A

normal vision

rays focus on retina perfectly

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25
Q

define myopia, the cause, and what is needed to correct it?

A

nearsightedness
rays focus in front of retina
due to long eyeball or thick lens
concave lens can correct

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26
Q

define hyperopia, the cause, and what is needed to correct it?

A

farsightedness
rays focus behind the retina
due to short eyeball or thin lens
convex lens can correct

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27
Q

define astigmatism, the cause, and what is needed to correct it?

A

rays do not focus
light bends in irregular pattern
due to cornea or lens being irregular in shape
uneven lens can correct

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28
Q

what special type of cells can be found only in special senses like within retina?

A

bipolar cells

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29
Q

what are the two layers of the retina?

A

pigmented epithelium

neural retina

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30
Q

what is the retina composed of?

A

receptor cells
several kinds of neurons
axons leading to optic nerve

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31
Q

what kind of vision do “rods” allow for?

A

colorless vision in dim light

only gives general outlines of images

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32
Q

what kind of vision do “cones” allow for?

A

colorful vision in bright light

allow for sharp visual acuity

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33
Q

what is a cataract and what causes them?

A

clouding of the LENS
sometimes congenital, mostly result in age-related hardening and thickening of lens; diabetes; heavy smoking; exposure to heavy sunlight; steroid use

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34
Q

what is pupillary constriction?

A

constricts pupils in order to prevent most divergent light rays from entering the eye
these divergent light rays would not focus properly and cause blurred vision

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35
Q

what is convergence of the eye?

A

medial rotation of the eye

closer an object is, the more need for eyes to be focused medially

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36
Q

rods or cones, which is more photosensitive?

A

rods (dark vision)

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37
Q

what is the reason rods create blurry images instead of clear ones?

A

rods participate in converging pathways

100 rods can feed into each ganglion cell, causing summated, collective information being gathered

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38
Q

how do the cones differ from rods that make it so it perceives sharp images?

A

each cone are directly connected to an individual bipolar cell
Hundreds of rods are connected to an individual bipolar cell

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39
Q

what is the point of the eye where cones are concentrated at and no rods are present?

A

fovea centralis within the macula lutea

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40
Q

how do our eyes interpret color?

A

light is absorbed into molecule retinal and combines with proteins called opsins
depending on the type of opsin retinal is bound to determines the different wavelengths of color spectrum
the cones in our eyes are best suited to pick up certain wavelengths which allows us to perceive red, green, blue colors

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41
Q

what is phototransduction?

A

process of translating light energy to a electrical signal for the brain to be able to process

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42
Q

describe in simple terms the path that light travels to the optic nerve

A

light hits back of eye onto retina
photoreceptors (rods and cones)
which pick up light and creates AP
Then the bipolar cell transfers this electrical signal to the ganglionic cell
the ganglionic cell’s axons make up the optic nerve

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43
Q

what is the protein that have to do with rods?

A

rhodospin

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44
Q

what is the protein that have to do with cones?

A

photospin/ iodospin

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45
Q

what is rhodopsin made up of when there is no light?

A

11-cis-retinal and opsin

46
Q

what happens to rhodospin when light hits it? Why is this important?

A

breaks down into all-trans-retinal and opsin

the changing of the shape helps with transduction of light waves

47
Q

what are the three colors that cones are specialized for?

A

red, green, and blue

48
Q

what is the point of the eye that is our blind spot?

A

optic disk

49
Q

describe the full length of our visual pathway that leads to brain, starting with photoreceptors and ending with what cortex of what lobe in our brain (9 total structures)

A 
photoreceptors
bipolar cells
ganglionic cells
optic nerve
optic chiasma
optic tracts
thalamus
optic radiations
visual cortex in occipital lobe
50
Q

when does light adaptation occur

A

when we move from darkness into bright light

51
Q

how do our eyes allow for light adaptation?

A

transducin migrates to center of vision in order to shut off rhodopsin from producing signals (within rods)

52
Q

what does dark adaptation mean?

A

when we go from a well-lit area to dark

53
Q

how do our eyes allow for dark adaptation?

A

transducin returns to outer segment of eye which allows for rhodospin to “turn back on”

54
Q

how long does it take for light vs dark adaptation to occur?

A

light: 5-10 minutes
dark: 20-30 minutes or several hours

55
Q

what portion of the brain is responsible for the reflex centers for the muscles of our eyes?

A

superior colliculi

56
Q

depth perception is dependent on____

A

the convergence of both eyes

57
Q

what are the small muscles that protect the ear drum from loud noises? how do they help?

A

tensor tympani and stapedius

contract to limit ossicles’ vibration and minimize damage to hearing receptors

58
Q

what bone does the bony labyrinth rest within?

A

temporal bone

59
Q

what are the layers within the bony labyrinth?

A 
endolymph (fluid filled innermost)
membranous labyrinth (tissue incasing endolymph fluid)
perilymph (fluid filled)
bony labyrinth (outermost)
60
Q

what is the purpose of the fluid within the cochlea?

A

allow us to hear

61
Q

what is the purpose of fluid within semicircular canals?

A

allows for balance

62
Q

what is the purpose of eustachian tube?

A

allow to pressure to escape or enter into ear

63
Q

what the the three auditory ossicles?

A

malleus, incus and stapes

64
Q

within the vestibule are two structures called the saccule and utricle, which of each are responsible for cochlea or semicircular canals?

A

saccule houses equilibrium receptors of the cochlea

utricle houses equilibrium receptors of the semicircular canals

65
Q

describe the three layers of the cochlea, what is found within each?

A 
scala vestibuli (upper most chamber) contain perilymph 
scala media (center) contains organ of corti and endolymph
scala tympani (lower most chamber)
66
Q

low and high frequencies are encoded at which regions of the cochlea?

A

high frequencies at base

low frequencies at apex

67
Q

what is the membrane and cell structures that are heavily responsible for the interpretation of sound?

A

basilar membrane and hair cells

68
Q

the fibers within the basilar membrane near the base of the cochlea are ____

A

short and stiff which help with high frequency sounds

69
Q

the fibers within the basilar membrane at the apex of the cochlea are_____

A

long and floppy which help with lower frequency sounds

70
Q

what membrane rests on top of the hair cells? what is the purpose?

A

tectorial membrane

allow for opening and closing of channels on outer hair cells to depolarize and hyperpolarize the cell

71
Q

briefly describe the auditory pathways to the brain

A 
hair cells
vestibulocochlear nerve VIII
inferior colliculus within midbrain
thalamus
auditory cortex within the temporal lobe
72
Q

what is the difference between inner and outer hair cells

A

inner: responsible for the perception of sound, gathers information to cranial nerve
outer: responsible for producing AP to basilar membrane in order to vibrate

73
Q

how do we perceive pitch?

A

when a sound is composed of tones of many frequencies, it activates several cochlear hair cells thus produced multiple tones

74
Q

how do we perceive loudness?

A

produced by large sound waves creating large movements in basilar membrane which create more frequent action potentials which we can perceive to be loud sounds

75
Q

how do our ears localize sound?

A

relative intensity and relative timing of sound waves reaching the two ears

76
Q

what is a macula and where are they locted?

A

sensory receptor organs

located within each saccule and utricle

77
Q

what are the structures found within macula?

A

hair cells
otolith membrane (jelly like)
otoliths (ear stones/crystals)

78
Q

what is the structure within the utricle and saccule that helps the semicircular canals function

A

crista ampullaris

79
Q

macula primary help with with movements?

A

respond to horizontal and vertical movements

80
Q

crista ampullaris primary helps with what in regards to movement?

A

changes in velocity of rotational movements

81
Q

what are 4 causes of hearing loss

A

sensory presbycusis: listening to loud music can atrophy receptor cells
neural presbycusis: loss of neurons in the auditory pathways
metabolic presbycusis: rare; caused by lack of nutrients
mechanical presbycusis: stiffening of ossicles or hair cells due to old age

82
Q

what is conductive hearing loss related to, what can help this?

A

impacted earwax
tumors
infections
hearing aid can aid this

83
Q

what is sensorineural hearing loss? what can help?

A

issue with cochlea and auditory nerve

cochlear implant can possibly aid this

84
Q

where are the crista ampullaris located?

A

amullae of semicircular canals

85
Q

what primarily effects macula vs cristae?

A

macula: gravity

cupula of cristae: inertia

86
Q

what is the cranial pathway for equilibrium?

A

maculae/ampulae
vestibular branch of vestibulocochlear VIII
thalamus
vestibular cortex within parietal lobes

87
Q

what is another term for taste?

A

gustation

88
Q

what is the sensitive portion of the taste receptor cell?

A

gustatory hair containing chemoreceptors

89
Q

what is the difference between taste and sight in terms of sensory cells?

A

taste receptors are modified epithelial cells instead of bipolar neurons

90
Q

what is the job of the supporting cells?

A

help reestablish damaged taste cells

91
Q

what are the features within a taste bud?

A

taste cell
supporting cells
taste pore

92
Q

what is the gustatory pathway to the brain?

A

Facial nerve VII, glossopharyngeal nerve IX, Vagus nerve X
medulla oblongata
thalamus
gustatory cortex within insula

93
Q

what are the five primary sensations that chemoreceptors within tongue are stimulated by? what are their corresponding associated tastant?

A 
sweet - sugars/carbs
sour - acid (low pH)
salty - salt
bitter - alkaloids (high pH/hydrogen)
umami/savory - amino acids
94
Q

define ageusia

A

complete loss of taste

95
Q

hypogeusia

A

reduced sense of taste

96
Q

dysgeusia

A

distortion of sense of taste

97
Q

parageusia

A

persistent abnormal taste

98
Q

hypergeusia

A

abnormally heightened sense of taste

99
Q

at what age do taste receptors begin to fade? what is the reason?

A

50 years old

loss of tongue papillae and decrease in saliva production

100
Q

what does sequential stimulation refer to?

A

eat more slowly…enjoy it more

101
Q

what other factors is smell associated with?

A

memories and emotions

taste

102
Q

what kind of receptors does smell have

A

chemoreceptors

103
Q

how is the sense of sight and smell similar in terms of the cells they both share?

A

bipolar cells in superior most portion of nasal cavity

104
Q

axons of the bipolar cells of smell extend through where and synapse where?

A

extend through cribiform plate to form Olfactory Nerve I

synapse in olfactory bulbs

105
Q

what stimulates olfactory chemoreceptors and what is the process of turning that into a electrical impulse?

A

odorants stimulate odorant receptor protein

odorant receptors begin chain of events that depolarize neuron

106
Q

what does olfactory code refer to?

A

odor that is coded for by a particular set of receptors

complex smells have multiple odorants that contribute to smell

107
Q

describe the olfactory pathways to the brain

A 
receptors cells
olfactory bulb
olfactory nerve
olfactory cortex: lateral area (temporal)
medial area (frontal)
intermediate area (frontal)
108
Q

what is the reason for needing to transmit to the latera, medial, and intermediate area of the olfactory pathways

A

lateral: temporal conscious awareness of smell
medial: frontal connection to limbic system
intermediate: frontal feeds back to inhibit olfactory bulbs

109
Q

what are damaged cells replaced by within the olfactory division

A

basal cells

110
Q

what is one sense that does not pass through talamus?

A

olfactory sense (smell)

Tracey's Lecture Notes (14 decks)

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