FINAL EXAM Flashcards
Which blood vessel carries blood out of the right ventricle?
Pulmonary trunk
In which way do cardiac muscle cells differ from the skeletal muscle cells?
cardiac muscle cells have only a few sarcomeres and mostly have Ca2+ as extracellular source
Medical professional would be on alert after noticing multiple extrasystoles, they are
contractions of the ventricles that are too early in cardiac cycle
If there is a decrease in blood pressure, the body will react by
increasing heart rate
The P wave of normal ECG indicates
atrial depolarization
The fact that the L vent of the heart is thicker than the right reveals that
it pumps blood against a greater resistance
What recieves blood during ventricular systole?
both aorta and pulmonary trunk
The 2nd heart sound is heard at the beginning of which phase?
Isovolumetric relaxation
What transports oxygen rich blood?
pulmonary vein
The volume of blood left in ventricle at end of contraction is called?
ESV
Blood that is in the right ven will pass through what valve?
pulmonary semi lunar valve
A nervous system reflect that causes the heart rate to decrease and blood vessels to dilate is attempting to correct
blood pressure that is too high
What change will increase cardiac output?
increasing venous return
What is pulse pressure
systolic pressure minus diastolic pressure
What provides the most long-term response to changes in BP?
Renal regulation
Peripheral resistance increases as
viscosity increases
What tunic of an artery is most responsible for maintaining bp and continuous blood circulation?
Tunica media
Congestive heart failure is
a condition in which the heart pumps inadequately and cannot meet bodies needs
Baroreceptors in the carotid sinus and aortic arch are sensitive to
changes in arterial pressure
What chemical affects bp in the short and long term
angiotensin II
If the nodes are continously not firing how do you fix this?
Pacemaker
What 2 factors make a rapid and substantial blood loss life-threatening?
loss of bp and loss of oxygen-carrying capacity
Where in the body would you find low oxygen levels causing vasoconstriction and high oxygen levels causing vasodilation?
lungs
Renin allows the function of angiotensin 1 which is covered to angiotensin II by an enzyme produced by
the lungs
What is happening if the net filtration is postive
fluid is moving to the tissue
if you have a ESV of 60 and an EDV of 120mo what is the fraction of ejection?
50%
Higher viscosity of blood will increase the amount of stress placed on the heart while its pumping, viscosity is highest when
hematocrit is highest
Lipids are insoluable in water but are found traveling in plasma. The explanation is
lipids are carried in plasma bound to soluble plasma transport protiens
An especially leaky type of capillary found in liver, bone marrow, spleen and adrenal medulla is called
sinusoid capillary
Parasympathetic fibers are found in_____ and release___ at synapses with cardiac muscle cells with decrease HR
Vagus nerve, acetylcholine
What organ is responsible for erythrocyte production?
bone
What condition leads to abnormal perfusion due to severe immune reaction to antigen or histamine release?
anaphylactic shock
What do you call a low resting heart rate
bradycardia
What is the name of the type of capillary that bypasses the cap bed and directly connects arterioles and venules?
metarteriole-thoroughfare channel
Define HR
units
How can it be modified
Contractions (full cardiac cycle) pumped in 1 min.
Units are beats per min
Can be modified by the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems. Sympathetic use epinephrine to increase pacemaker firing. Para lowers HR by ACh which causes hyperpolarization and leads to slower HR
Define SV
Units
how can it be modified?
SV = stroke volume = amount of blood ejected from heart in one full cardiac cycle
Units = ml/min
Can be modified by venous return and HR
Define CO
Units
how can it be modified
Co-cardiac output = the amount of blood pumped by the heart in 1 min
units = ml/min
Can be modified by increasing or decreasing HR and SV
DEFINE
Ischemia
Hypoxia
Edema
Ischemia - lack of proper blood flow to a tissue
Hypoxia - Deficiency in the amount of oxygen reaching tissues
Edema - swelling of a tissue due to extra fluid
What hormone is the only hormone produced by the body that decreases BP?
ANP - Atrial natriuretic peptide - causes the release of urine and vasodilation
Difference between primary hypertension and secondary hypertension
Primary is 90% of the cases and the cause is unknown, Dr just treat symptoms
The secondary is from a known condition and Dr can treat the problem
A person takes large amounts of EPO to gain an advantage over others in athletic. As a result the person develops a hematocrit of 67% this is a type of
polycythemia
Carbaminnohemoglobin molecules
are found in erythrocytes when CO2 is bound to heloglobin
Platelets stick to
collagen fibers
A human erythrocyte can carry
about 1 billion 02 molecules
Lymphoid tissue that appears as swelling of mucosa in the oral cavity is called
tonsil
a number of 50,000 platelets ul/ is
a sign of thrombopenia
Myeloid stem cell lines give rise to all cells except
lymphocytes
A person with an extremely high count of neutrophiles is likely to suffering
a bacterial infection
What is the avg normal PH for blood?
7.35 - 7.45
An individual who is blood type AB and Rh-negative can
receive any blood type except those with Rh antigen positive
Recognition of self vs non-self by the adaptive immune system in humans is accomplished by
exposure of T cells to bodies own antigens in the thymus
Major histocompatibility complex refers to a large group of genes that code for proteins that play an essential role in
Antigen presentation to T lymphocytes
Which of the following is not a target by T cells or B cells?
Toxin/Poison
small secondary lymphoid organs which cluster along lymphatic vessels are called
lymph nodes
Which lymphatic structure drains lymph from the right upper limb and right side of the head of the thorax?
Right lymphatic duct
Antibodies that act against a particular foreign substance are released by
plasma cells
Lymph leaves a lymph node via
an efferent lymphatic vessels
IgA
Protects mucosal barriers and secretory glands
IgG
Enables quick and efficient response to secondary exposure to antigen
IgD
This is a B cell receptor
IgM
The first peak during a primary immune response
IgE
Responsible of Eosinophil activation (parasitic infections) and/or during allergic episodes
Inflammation brings more
leukocytes to the site of infection
B lymphocytes develop immunocompetence in the
bone marrow
The hormone erythropoietin stimulates red blood cell production in red bone marrow, Where in the body is most of the erythropoietin produced
kidneys
In the clonal selection of B cells, which substance is responsible for determining which cells will become clonged?
Antigen
Reg T cells
decrease T helper and t Cytotoxic activity as antigenic stimulus decreases to prevent autoimmunity
T cell activation requires
antigen binding and co-stimulation
Complement proteins and antibodies can coat a microorganism and provide binding sites, enabling macrophages and neutrophils to phagocytize the organism those proteins act as
opsonins
Which of the following cells has the largest role and most widespread effect on immunity?
Helper T cells
Cancer and virus-infected body cells can be killed before activation of adaptive immunity by
NK cells
Blood is made up of what 3 parts
Plasma 55%
Formed elements 45%
Erythrocytes
Which plasma component is the main carrier or otherwise insoluble molecules and responsible for some of the osmotic pressure
Albumin
What is the term used to describe how leukocytes follow a chemical train in the body?
Chemotaxis
Which substance is a family of proteins produced by an already infected cell whose specialty is fighting viruses by warning neighboring cells?
interferon
What are the steps in digestion
Ingestion
Digestion
Absorption
Fecal compaction
Elimation
What is the main by-product of anaerobic respiration of glucose
Lactic acid
Glycogenolysis
Glycogen turned into glucose
Beta oxidation
Fatty acids breakdown into a 2 carbon compound
Glycolysis
Glucose turned into Pyruvic acid
Glycogenesis
Glucose turned into glycogen
Gluconeogensis
Lactic acid, amino acids or triglycerides turned into glucose
Transamination
Amino acid turned into pyruvic acid
Intrapulmonary pressure
pressure within the alveoli of the lungs
Which of the following counteracts the movement of bicarbonate ions from red blood cells
the chloride shift
Respiratory control centers are located in the
medulla and pons
How is most of the carbon dioxide transported in blood?
As bicarb ions in plasma first entering RBC
Erythrocyte count increases after a few days when an individual goes from low to high altitude because
concentration of oxygen is lower at higher altitudes
The relationship between gas pressure and gas volume in adjacent compartments is described as
boyles law
Which of the following fluid compartments contains the largest volume of water?
Intracellular compartment
The thin segment of nephron loops descending limb aids in
passive movement of solutes out of tubule
The kidneys are stimulated to produce renin by
a decrease in BP
The factor favoring filtrate formation at the glomerulus is
glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure
In the ascending limb of the nephron loop the thick segment moved
ions out of interstitial spaces or blood for reabsorption
What is the most direct function of the juxtamedullary glomerular apparatus?
help regulate BP and rate of electrolyte excretion by kidneys
What is a chemical buffer system?
Nucleic acid
Potassium levels in the body are regulated by
Aldosterone
The most common cause of hyperkalemia is
Cellular injury or death
Body fluid pH will rise when
large amounts of bi carb ar ingested
in renal compensation of acidosis H+_____ and bicarb reabsorption_____
Increases, increases
What would happen if the capsular hydrostatic pressure were increased above normal?
net filtration would decrease
If the thyroid and parathyroid glands were removed, what would go out of balance?
Calcium ion levels
Gluconeogenesis, the formation of glucose from fats and proteins is due to the action of
Cortisol
The posterior lobe of pit gland is not true endocrine gland bc
it is only hormone storage that received hormones from the hypothalamus
How do glucocorticoids enable the body to deal with stress?
by releasing blood glucose, fatty acid, and amino acid levels and enhancing BP
What ION is sometimes used as a 2nd messenger of amino acid based hormones?
Calcium
What gland is both endocrine and exocrine
pancreas
Erection of penis results from
parasympathetic reflex
Menstration occurs when
blood levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease
What are the vessels of the coronary circulation?
Coronary sulcus
R&L coronary arteries
Great cardian vein & Small cardiac vein -> R atrium
Is blood flow through coronary circulation continous?
No when cardiac muscle contracts blood vessels are constricted and blood does not flow, when cardiac muscles relax blood flows through coronary
What is ectpoic focus?
any part of heart other than SA node that generates a heart beat
Explain the cardiac cycle - electrical events
- SA node fires AP - starts atrial depolarization - atrium contracts - P wave
- AV node gets AP and goes to AV bundle to Purkinje fibers - starts ventricle depolarization - ventricles contract - QRS wave
- Ventricles repolarize - ventricles relax - T wave
Explain the cardiac cycle - Mechanical events
1. Iso-volumetric relaxation - passive atrial filling (P wave/atrial depolarization)
2. Atrial contraction - active ventricular filling - atrial systole/vent diastole
3. Isovolumetric contraction - Ventricle contraction (QRS Wave/ ventricle depolarization) atrial diastole/ventricle systole
4. Ventricular ejection - Blood goes out pulmonary and aortic (T wave, ventricular repolarization beginning of vent diastole
5. Repeat
What is EDV?
What is ESV?
What is stroke volume?
What is CO?
HR?
End diastolic volume is blood in vent at end of vent diastole
End systolic volume is blood in vent at end of vent systole
Stroke volume is EDV - ESV (blood pumped w/ each beat/cycle)
Co - is volume of blood pumped to body from one vent in 1 min
CO = SV X HR
HR = # of times heart beats/contracts per min
Mean arterial pressure is calculated by
What is preload and after load?
Preload - extent at which the vent walls were stretched with blood. Greater stretch = greater contraction
Afterload = the pressure the L vent must produce to overcome pressure in aorta
what factors affect Cardiac output?
Venous return
HR
SV
Extrinsic regulation
How does parasympathetic affect the heart
How does sympathetic affect heart
Parasympathetic - VAGUS NERVES - inhibitory influence - decreasing heart rate
ACH binds to channels to make the cardiac cell more permeable to K causing it to hyperpolarize = longer to contract
Sympathetic - increases both HR and contraction force
NE increases depolarization causing frequency of AP to increase = faster HR
What is an incompetent valve?
What is valvular stenosis?
Incompetent valve - valves close incomplete, blood backflows
Valvular stenosis - stiff flaps constrict flow, do not open completely
What are the differences between cardiac muscle cells verse skeletal muscle cells?
Cardiac cells
Cylinder/branched - 1 nucleus - Striated
More mitochondria
Intercalated disc
Involuntary - no neuron
Skeletal cells
Multinucleate - Striated
Voluntary
Explain how contractile cells work?
Explain how autorythmic cells work?
- *Contractile cells - 90%**
1. AP comes and NA2 open and NA rushes out = depolarization to about 20mv
2. K+ channels open and K goes out starting the repolarization
3. Ca2 open and allows Ca to rush in = plateau REFRACTORY PERIOD
4. Ca close and repolarization happens - *Autorythmic cells - 1%**
1. pacemaker potential - allow enough NA into a cell that reaches a threshold = AP
2. CA channels open - Ca rushes in until 20mv
3. Repolarize - open K channels - K goes out
Name the type of arteries, capillary, and veins, - by flow from the largest artery
How does blood flow from an artery to a capillary?
Conducting / elastic artery
Distributing / muscular artery
Arteriole
Continuous capillary
Fenestrated capillary
Sinusoidal capillary
Venules
Small veins
Med/large veins
Through the metarteriole - thoroughfare channel
What is not part of the intrinsic conduction system of the heart?
A- Purkinje fibers
B - AV node
C- Bundle of his
D- SA node
E - AV Valve
E- AV Valve
What will NOT increase cardiac output?
A- Taking a antihypertensive drug
B- Taking Epinephrin/adrenaline
C- Increasing extracellular Ca2
D - Increasing venous return
A - taking an antihypertensive drug
Which of the following would promote reabsorption from the arteriole end of cap bed?
A - Increasing plasma protein concentration
B- relaxing precap sphincters
C- increasing BP
D- increasing interstitial tissue protein concentration
E - reducing hydrostatic pressure from interstitial fluid
A - increasing plasma protein concentration
Which would NOT promote reabsorption from the venous end of cap bed?
A - Reducing protien/solute concentration of nearby interstitial fluid
B - increasing protein/solute concentration of plasma in circulating blood
C- decreasing hydrostatic pressure of blood
D - increasing protein/solute concentration in nearby interstitial fluid
D - increasing protein/solute concentration in nearby interstitial fluid
What do you call a low resting heart rate below 60 bpm
Is or does the thymus contain a mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue?
no
Which of the following is associated with passive immunity?
A- booster shot of vaccine
B- exposure to antigen
C- infusion of weakened viruses
D - passage of IgG antibodies from pregnant mother to fetus
D - passage of IgG antibodies from pregnant mother to fetus
Activated T cells and macrophages release ——- to mobilize immune cells and attract other leukocytes into the area
Cytokines
What is the difference between serum and plasma?
Serum is plasma w/out the clotting factors
What is a pyrogen? How is it helpful to the immune system?
A pyrogen is released by a cell to induce fever.
Helps fight bacteria and viruses that are sensitive to temp changes
Why are antibiotics efficient against bacteria but useless against viruses or cancer cells?
Antibiotic kill bacteria but do not kill viruses or cancer cells
Antibiotics will kill some of the bodies own cells which make it harder for the body to fight virus or cancer
What are the 3 major functions fo the lymphatic system?
- Fluid reabsorption - returns fluid to the circulatory system
- Protection - housing for macrophages and other cells, filters debris and pathogens
- Lipid reabsorption - lacteals absorb lipids in intestings
What is the purpose of the larynx?
provides a pathway for air as well as houses vocal folds
Difference between external and internal respiration
External respiration is the exhange of 02 and Co2 between air breathed and blood. Internal is the exchange between blood and bodies tissues
What is the difference between anemic ischemia and hypoxic ischemia?
Anemic ischemia is lack of functional RBC to bodies tissues. hypoxic ischemia is lack of oxygen to bodys tissues
what are chylomicrons?
transporters for fatty acids
RBC lack mitochondria, ATP production is solely through…
Glycolysis
Perfusion-ventilation coupling is mostly regulated by
PCO2 in the bronchioles and PO2 in the blood vessels
What hormone directs essentially all events of the absorptive state?
insulin
When proteins undergo deamination, the waste substance found in the urine is mostly
urea
Explain how autorhythmic cells work with contractile cells to make a heart contraction
- AP is generated in Autorhythmic cells - goes through the intercalated disc to contractile cell
- AP goes down T tubules in Contractile cell
- Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in T tubule open and Ca rushed in from extracellular fluid which causes Ca channels in SR to open and Ca to rush out
- CA binds to troponin and removes tropomyosin, which reveals myosin-binding site, and actin and myosin do a Powerstroke
What are the 3 plasma proteins in the blood and what do they do?
Albumin - Osmotic pressure
Globulins - antibodies, transport, clotting factors
Fibrinogen - converted to fibrin in clot formation
What are the 3 main factors regulating BP?
What 3 factors aid in venous return?
Cardiac output
Peripheral resistance
Blood volume
Muscular pump, respiratory pump, sympathetic venoconstriction
Erythroblasts multiply and synthesize…
What 5 things are needed for RBC production
What does antithrombin III do?
hemoglobin
Iron, Vit b12, folic acid, Vit C, cooper
inactivates any unbound thrombin that escapes into bloodstream
Distribute the electrolytes in compartments where they are present in high concentration
Na+, K+, Cl-, HPo4-
Extracellular/blood
Interstitial fluid
Intracellular
Extracellular = Na+. Cl-, Ca2+ Interstitial = Na, Cl- Intracellular = K+, HPO4, mg
list 3 substances that are abnormal urinary constituents and provide clinical terms?
How many liters are being filtered each day by kidneys and what % is secreted/excreted?
Freshly voided urine has no smell but why after sitting does it smell?
What is an infection of kidneys call?
Sugar - glycosuria
Protein - proteinuria
keytones - ketonuria
180 liters each day /
Bacteria will affect urine and smell like ammonia
pyelonephritis
What are the 3 steps in urine formation
Glomerular filtration - water & solutes flow from the glomerulus into capsule. The membrane keeps blood cells and proteins in blood vessel
Reabsorption - Nutrients and water move back into the blood vessel from renal tubule
Secretion - Waste and H+ ions flow out of blood vessel into the renal tubule
The thin segment of the nephron loops descending limb aids in the passive movement of
Solutes out of tubule
Cells and transport proteins are physically prevented from passing through the filtrate membrane, This has the following effect on filtration
Increased osmotic pressure in glomerular capillaries that reduces the amount of filtration
Increase in the permeability of the cells of the collecting duct to water is due to
increase in production of ADH
What are 2 most important hormone regulators of electrolyte reabsorption and secretion
Aldosterone and epinephrine
One of the functions of angiotensin II is
Constrict arteries
Which of the following is not reabsorbed from the proximal convoluted tubule?
K+
Glucose
Na+
Creatine
Urea
Creatinine
Fluid in the glomerular capsule is similar to that of plasma except that it does not contain a significant amount of
protein
Describe the distribution of sodium and potassium between cells and body fluids
K+ mainly in cells, Na+ in body fluids
Renin is released by
Kidneys
What is the main role of Mg2+ in the body?
cofactors for intracellular enzymes
What hormone functions to increase water reabsorption by inserting aquaporins in the tubule cell membrane
Vasopressin
What are the 3 types of hypersensitivities?
Immediate hypersensitivity - AKA Acute - seconds after contact with allergen
Subacute hypersensitivity - slower onset 1-3 hours (mismatched blood transfusion)
hypersensitiveness - slow onset 1-3 days (poison IVY)
