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BIO 224 > FINAL EXAM > Flashcards

FINAL EXAM Flashcards

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1
Q

Which blood vessel carries blood out of the right ventricle?

A

Pulmonary trunk

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2
Q

In which way do cardiac muscle cells differ from the skeletal muscle cells?

A

cardiac muscle cells have only a few sarcomeres and mostly have Ca2+ as extracellular source

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3
Q

Medical professional would be on alert after noticing multiple extrasystoles, they are

A

contractions of the ventricles that are too early in cardiac cycle

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4
Q

If there is a decrease in blood pressure, the body will react by

A

increasing heart rate

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5
Q

The P wave of normal ECG indicates

A

atrial depolarization

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6
Q

The fact that the L vent of the heart is thicker than the right reveals that

A

it pumps blood against a greater resistance

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7
Q

What recieves blood during ventricular systole?

A

both aorta and pulmonary trunk

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8
Q

The 2nd heart sound is heard at the beginning of which phase?

A

Isovolumetric relaxation

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9
Q

What transports oxygen rich blood?

A

pulmonary vein

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10
Q

The volume of blood left in ventricle at end of contraction is called?

A

ESV

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11
Q

Blood that is in the right ven will pass through what valve?

A

pulmonary semi lunar valve

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12
Q

A nervous system reflect that causes the heart rate to decrease and blood vessels to dilate is attempting to correct

A

blood pressure that is too high

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13
Q

What change will increase cardiac output?

A

increasing venous return

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14
Q

What is pulse pressure

A

systolic pressure minus diastolic pressure

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15
Q

What provides the most long-term response to changes in BP?

A

Renal regulation

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16
Q

Peripheral resistance increases as

A

viscosity increases

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17
Q

What tunic of an artery is most responsible for maintaining bp and continuous blood circulation?

A

Tunica media

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18
Q

Congestive heart failure is

A

a condition in which the heart pumps inadequately and cannot meet bodies needs

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19
Q

Baroreceptors in the carotid sinus and aortic arch are sensitive to

A

changes in arterial pressure

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20
Q

What chemical affects bp in the short and long term

A

angiotensin II

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21
Q

If the nodes are continously not firing how do you fix this?

A

Pacemaker

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22
Q

What 2 factors make a rapid and substantial blood loss life-threatening?

A

loss of bp and loss of oxygen-carrying capacity

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23
Q

Where in the body would you find low oxygen levels causing vasoconstriction and high oxygen levels causing vasodilation?

A

lungs

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24
Q

Renin allows the function of angiotensin 1 which is covered to angiotensin II by an enzyme produced by

A

the lungs

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25
Q

What is happening if the net filtration is postive

A

fluid is moving to the tissue

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26
Q

if you have a ESV of 60 and an EDV of 120mo what is the fraction of ejection?

A

50%

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27
Q

Higher viscosity of blood will increase the amount of stress placed on the heart while its pumping, viscosity is highest when

A

hematocrit is highest

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28
Q

Lipids are insoluable in water but are found traveling in plasma. The explanation is

A

lipids are carried in plasma bound to soluble plasma transport protiens

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29
Q

An especially leaky type of capillary found in liver, bone marrow, spleen and adrenal medulla is called

A

sinusoid capillary

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30
Q

Parasympathetic fibers are found in_____ and release___ at synapses with cardiac muscle cells with decrease HR

A

Vagus nerve, acetylcholine

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31
Q

What organ is responsible for erythrocyte production?

A

bone

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32
Q

What condition leads to abnormal perfusion due to severe immune reaction to antigen or histamine release?

A

anaphylactic shock

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33
Q

What do you call a low resting heart rate

A

bradycardia

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34
Q

What is the name of the type of capillary that bypasses the cap bed and directly connects arterioles and venules?

A

metarteriole-thoroughfare channel

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35
Q

Define HR

units
How can it be modified

A

Contractions (full cardiac cycle) pumped in 1 min.
Units are beats per min
Can be modified by the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems. Sympathetic use epinephrine to increase pacemaker firing. Para lowers HR by ACh which causes hyperpolarization and leads to slower HR

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36
Q

Define SV

Units
how can it be modified?

A

SV = stroke volume = amount of blood ejected from heart in one full cardiac cycle
Units = ml/min
Can be modified by venous return and HR

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37
Q

Define CO

Units
how can it be modified

A

Co-cardiac output = the amount of blood pumped by the heart in 1 min
units = ml/min
Can be modified by increasing or decreasing HR and SV

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38
Q

DEFINE
Ischemia
Hypoxia
Edema

A

Ischemia - lack of proper blood flow to a tissue
Hypoxia - Deficiency in the amount of oxygen reaching tissues
Edema - swelling of a tissue due to extra fluid

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39
Q

What hormone is the only hormone produced by the body that decreases BP?

A

ANP - Atrial natriuretic peptide - causes the release of urine and vasodilation

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40
Q

Difference between primary hypertension and secondary hypertension

A

Primary is 90% of the cases and the cause is unknown, Dr just treat symptoms
The secondary is from a known condition and Dr can treat the problem

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41
Q

A person takes large amounts of EPO to gain an advantage over others in athletic. As a result the person develops a hematocrit of 67% this is a type of

A

polycythemia

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42
Q

Carbaminnohemoglobin molecules

A

are found in erythrocytes when CO2 is bound to heloglobin

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43
Q

Platelets stick to

A

collagen fibers

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44
Q

A human erythrocyte can carry

A

about 1 billion 02 molecules

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45
Q

Lymphoid tissue that appears as swelling of mucosa in the oral cavity is called

A

tonsil

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46
Q

a number of 50,000 platelets ul/ is

A

a sign of thrombopenia

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47
Q

Myeloid stem cell lines give rise to all cells except

A

lymphocytes

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48
Q

A person with an extremely high count of neutrophiles is likely to suffering

A

a bacterial infection

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49
Q

What is the avg normal PH for blood?

A

7.35 - 7.45

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50
Q

An individual who is blood type AB and Rh-negative can

A

receive any blood type except those with Rh antigen positive

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51
Q

Recognition of self vs non-self by the adaptive immune system in humans is accomplished by

A

exposure of T cells to bodies own antigens in the thymus

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52
Q

Major histocompatibility complex refers to a large group of genes that code for proteins that play an essential role in

A

Antigen presentation to T lymphocytes

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53
Q

Which of the following is not a target by T cells or B cells?

A

Toxin/Poison

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54
Q

small secondary lymphoid organs which cluster along lymphatic vessels are called

A

lymph nodes

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55
Q

Which lymphatic structure drains lymph from the right upper limb and right side of the head of the thorax?

A

Right lymphatic duct

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56
Q

Antibodies that act against a particular foreign substance are released by

A

plasma cells

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57
Q

Lymph leaves a lymph node via

A

an efferent lymphatic vessels

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58
Q

IgA

A

Protects mucosal barriers and secretory glands

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59
Q

IgG

A

Enables quick and efficient response to secondary exposure to antigen

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60
Q

IgD

A

This is a B cell receptor

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61
Q

IgM

A

The first peak during a primary immune response

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62
Q

IgE

A

Responsible of Eosinophil activation (parasitic infections) and/or during allergic episodes

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63
Q

Inflammation brings more

A

leukocytes to the site of infection

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64
Q

B lymphocytes develop immunocompetence in the

A

bone marrow

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65
Q

The hormone erythropoietin stimulates red blood cell production in red bone marrow, Where in the body is most of the erythropoietin produced

A

kidneys

66
Q

In the clonal selection of B cells, which substance is responsible for determining which cells will become clonged?

A

Antigen

67
Q

Reg T cells

A

decrease T helper and t Cytotoxic activity as antigenic stimulus decreases to prevent autoimmunity

68
Q

T cell activation requires

A

antigen binding and co-stimulation

69
Q

Complement proteins and antibodies can coat a microorganism and provide binding sites, enabling macrophages and neutrophils to phagocytize the organism those proteins act as

A

opsonins

70
Q

Which of the following cells has the largest role and most widespread effect on immunity?

A

Helper T cells

71
Q

Cancer and virus-infected body cells can be killed before activation of adaptive immunity by

A

NK cells

72
Q

Blood is made up of what 3 parts

A

Plasma 55%
Formed elements 45%
Erythrocytes

73
Q

Which plasma component is the main carrier or otherwise insoluble molecules and responsible for some of the osmotic pressure

A

Albumin

74
Q

What is the term used to describe how leukocytes follow a chemical train in the body?

A

Chemotaxis

75
Q

Which substance is a family of proteins produced by an already infected cell whose specialty is fighting viruses by warning neighboring cells?

A

interferon

76
Q

What are the steps in digestion

A

Ingestion
Digestion
Absorption
Fecal compaction
Elimation

77
Q

What is the main by-product of anaerobic respiration of glucose

A

Lactic acid

78
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

Glycogen turned into glucose

79
Q

Beta oxidation

A

Fatty acids breakdown into a 2 carbon compound

80
Q

Glycolysis

A

Glucose turned into Pyruvic acid

81
Q

Glycogenesis

A

Glucose turned into glycogen

82
Q

Gluconeogensis

A

Lactic acid, amino acids or triglycerides turned into glucose

83
Q

Transamination

A

Amino acid turned into pyruvic acid

84
Q

Intrapulmonary pressure

A

pressure within the alveoli of the lungs

85
Q

Which of the following counteracts the movement of bicarbonate ions from red blood cells

A

the chloride shift

86
Q

Respiratory control centers are located in the

A

medulla and pons

87
Q

How is most of the carbon dioxide transported in blood?

A

As bicarb ions in plasma first entering RBC

88
Q

Erythrocyte count increases after a few days when an individual goes from low to high altitude because

A

concentration of oxygen is lower at higher altitudes

89
Q

The relationship between gas pressure and gas volume in adjacent compartments is described as

A

boyles law

90
Q

Which of the following fluid compartments contains the largest volume of water?

A

Intracellular compartment

91
Q

The thin segment of nephron loops descending limb aids in

A

passive movement of solutes out of tubule

92
Q

The kidneys are stimulated to produce renin by

A

a decrease in BP

93
Q

The factor favoring filtrate formation at the glomerulus is

A

glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure

94
Q

In the ascending limb of the nephron loop the thick segment moved

A

ions out of interstitial spaces or blood for reabsorption

95
Q

What is the most direct function of the juxtamedullary glomerular apparatus?

A

help regulate BP and rate of electrolyte excretion by kidneys

96
Q

What is a chemical buffer system?

A

Nucleic acid

97
Q

Potassium levels in the body are regulated by

A

Aldosterone

98
Q

The most common cause of hyperkalemia is

A

Cellular injury or death

99
Q

Body fluid pH will rise when

A

large amounts of bi carb ar ingested

100
Q

in renal compensation of acidosis H+_____ and bicarb reabsorption_____

A

Increases, increases

101
Q

What would happen if the capsular hydrostatic pressure were increased above normal?

A

net filtration would decrease

102
Q

If the thyroid and parathyroid glands were removed, what would go out of balance?

A

Calcium ion levels

103
Q

Gluconeogenesis, the formation of glucose from fats and proteins is due to the action of

A

Cortisol

104
Q

The posterior lobe of pit gland is not true endocrine gland bc

A

it is only hormone storage that received hormones from the hypothalamus

105
Q

How do glucocorticoids enable the body to deal with stress?

A

by releasing blood glucose, fatty acid, and amino acid levels and enhancing BP

106
Q

What ION is sometimes used as a 2nd messenger of amino acid based hormones?

A

Calcium

107
Q

What gland is both endocrine and exocrine

A

pancreas

108
Q

Erection of penis results from

A

parasympathetic reflex

109
Q

Menstration occurs when

A

blood levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease

110
Q

What are the vessels of the coronary circulation?

A

Coronary sulcus
R&L coronary arteries
Great cardian vein & Small cardiac vein -> R atrium

111
Q

Is blood flow through coronary circulation continous?

A

No when cardiac muscle contracts blood vessels are constricted and blood does not flow, when cardiac muscles relax blood flows through coronary

112
Q

What is ectpoic focus?

A

any part of heart other than SA node that generates a heart beat

113
Q

Explain the cardiac cycle - electrical events

A
  1. SA node fires AP - starts atrial depolarization - atrium contracts - P wave
  2. AV node gets AP and goes to AV bundle to Purkinje fibers - starts ventricle depolarization - ventricles contract - QRS wave
  3. Ventricles repolarize - ventricles relax - T wave
114
Q

Explain the cardiac cycle - Mechanical events

A

1. Iso-volumetric relaxation - passive atrial filling (P wave/atrial depolarization)

2. Atrial contraction - active ventricular filling - atrial systole/vent diastole

3. Isovolumetric contraction - Ventricle contraction (QRS Wave/ ventricle depolarization) atrial diastole/ventricle systole

4. Ventricular ejection - Blood goes out pulmonary and aortic (T wave, ventricular repolarization beginning of vent diastole

5. Repeat

115
Q

What is EDV?
What is ESV?

What is stroke volume?

What is CO?

HR?

A

End diastolic volume is blood in vent at end of vent diastole

End systolic volume is blood in vent at end of vent systole

Stroke volume is EDV - ESV (blood pumped w/ each beat/cycle)

Co - is volume of blood pumped to body from one vent in 1 min

CO = SV X HR

HR = # of times heart beats/contracts per min

116
Q

Mean arterial pressure is calculated by

A
117
Q

What is preload and after load?

A

Preload - extent at which the vent walls were stretched with blood. Greater stretch = greater contraction

Afterload = the pressure the L vent must produce to overcome pressure in aorta

118
Q

what factors affect Cardiac output?

A

Venous return
HR

SV

119
Q

Extrinsic regulation

How does parasympathetic affect the heart

How does sympathetic affect heart

A

Parasympathetic - VAGUS NERVES - inhibitory influence - decreasing heart rate

ACH binds to channels to make the cardiac cell more permeable to K causing it to hyperpolarize = longer to contract

Sympathetic - increases both HR and contraction force

NE increases depolarization causing frequency of AP to increase = faster HR

120
Q

What is an incompetent valve?

What is valvular stenosis?

A

Incompetent valve - valves close incomplete, blood backflows

Valvular stenosis - stiff flaps constrict flow, do not open completely

121
Q

What are the differences between cardiac muscle cells verse skeletal muscle cells?

A

Cardiac cells

Cylinder/branched - 1 nucleus - Striated
More mitochondria
Intercalated disc
Involuntary - no neuron

Skeletal cells

Multinucleate - Striated
Voluntary

122
Q

Explain how contractile cells work?

Explain how autorythmic cells work?

A
  • *Contractile cells - 90%**
    1. AP comes and NA2 open and NA rushes out = depolarization to about 20mv
    2. K+ channels open and K goes out starting the repolarization
    3. Ca2 open and allows Ca to rush in = plateau REFRACTORY PERIOD
    4. Ca close and repolarization happens
  • *Autorythmic cells - 1%**
    1. pacemaker potential - allow enough NA into a cell that reaches a threshold = AP
    2. CA channels open - Ca rushes in until 20mv
    3. Repolarize - open K channels - K goes out
123
Q

Name the type of arteries, capillary, and veins, - by flow from the largest artery

How does blood flow from an artery to a capillary?

A

Conducting / elastic artery
Distributing / muscular artery
Arteriole
Continuous capillary
Fenestrated capillary
Sinusoidal capillary
Venules
Small veins
Med/large veins

Through the metarteriole - thoroughfare channel

124
Q

What is not part of the intrinsic conduction system of the heart?

A- Purkinje fibers
B - AV node
C- Bundle of his
D- SA node
E - AV Valve

A

E- AV Valve

125
Q

What will NOT increase cardiac output?

A- Taking a antihypertensive drug
B- Taking Epinephrin/adrenaline
C- Increasing extracellular Ca2
D - Increasing venous return

A

A - taking an antihypertensive drug

126
Q

Which of the following would promote reabsorption from the arteriole end of cap bed?

A - Increasing plasma protein concentration
B- relaxing precap sphincters
C- increasing BP
D- increasing interstitial tissue protein concentration
E - reducing hydrostatic pressure from interstitial fluid

A

A - increasing plasma protein concentration

127
Q

Which would NOT promote reabsorption from the venous end of cap bed?

A - Reducing protien/solute concentration of nearby interstitial fluid
B - increasing protein/solute concentration of plasma in circulating blood
C- decreasing hydrostatic pressure of blood
D - increasing protein/solute concentration in nearby interstitial fluid

A

D - increasing protein/solute concentration in nearby interstitial fluid

128
Q

What do you call a low resting heart rate below 60 bpm

A
129
Q

Is or does the thymus contain a mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue?

A

no

130
Q

Which of the following is associated with passive immunity?

A- booster shot of vaccine
B- exposure to antigen
C- infusion of weakened viruses
D - passage of IgG antibodies from pregnant mother to fetus

A

​D - passage of IgG antibodies from pregnant mother to fetus

131
Q

Activated T cells and macrophages release ——- to mobilize immune cells and attract other leukocytes into the area

A

Cytokines

132
Q

What is the difference between serum and plasma?

A

Serum is plasma w/out the clotting factors

133
Q

What is a pyrogen? How is it helpful to the immune system?

A

A pyrogen is released by a cell to induce fever.

Helps fight bacteria and viruses that are sensitive to temp changes

134
Q

Why are antibiotics efficient against bacteria but useless against viruses or cancer cells?

A

Antibiotic kill bacteria but do not kill viruses or cancer cells

Antibiotics will kill some of the bodies own cells which make it harder for the body to fight virus or cancer

135
Q

What are the 3 major functions fo the lymphatic system?

A
  1. Fluid reabsorption - returns fluid to the circulatory system
  2. Protection - housing for macrophages and other cells, filters debris and pathogens
  3. Lipid reabsorption - lacteals absorb lipids in intestings
136
Q

What is the purpose of the larynx?

A

provides a pathway for air as well as houses vocal folds

137
Q

Difference between external and internal respiration

A

External respiration is the exhange of 02 and Co2 between air breathed and blood. Internal is the exchange between blood and bodies tissues

138
Q

What is the difference between anemic ischemia and hypoxic ischemia?

A

Anemic ischemia is lack of functional RBC to bodies tissues. hypoxic ischemia is lack of oxygen to bodys tissues

139
Q

what are chylomicrons?

A

transporters for fatty acids

140
Q

RBC lack mitochondria, ATP production is solely through…

A

Glycolysis

141
Q

Perfusion-ventilation coupling is mostly regulated by

A

PCO2 in the bronchioles and PO2 in the blood vessels

142
Q

What hormone directs essentially all events of the absorptive state?

A

insulin

143
Q

When proteins undergo deamination, the waste substance found in the urine is mostly

A

urea

144
Q

Explain how autorhythmic cells work with contractile cells to make a heart contraction

A
  1. AP is generated in Autorhythmic cells - goes through the intercalated disc to contractile cell
  2. AP goes down T tubules in Contractile cell
  3. Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in T tubule open and Ca rushed in from extracellular fluid which causes Ca channels in SR to open and Ca to rush out
  4. CA binds to troponin and removes tropomyosin, which reveals myosin-binding site, and actin and myosin do a Powerstroke
145
Q

What are the 3 plasma proteins in the blood and what do they do?

A

Albumin - Osmotic pressure
Globulins - antibodies, transport, clotting factors
Fibrinogen - converted to fibrin in clot formation

146
Q

What are the 3 main factors regulating BP?

What 3 factors aid in venous return?

A

Cardiac output
Peripheral resistance
Blood volume

Muscular pump, respiratory pump, sympathetic venoconstriction

147
Q

Erythroblasts multiply and synthesize…

What 5 things are needed for RBC production

What does antithrombin III do?

A

hemoglobin

Iron, Vit b12, folic acid, Vit C, cooper

inactivates any unbound thrombin that escapes into bloodstream

148
Q

Distribute the electrolytes in compartments where they are present in high concentration

Na+, K+, Cl-, HPo4-

Extracellular/blood
Interstitial fluid
Intracellular

A 
Extracellular = Na+. Cl-, Ca2+
Interstitial = Na, Cl-
Intracellular = K+, HPO4, mg
149
Q

list 3 substances that are abnormal urinary constituents and provide clinical terms?

How many liters are being filtered each day by kidneys and what % is secreted/excreted?

Freshly voided urine has no smell but why after sitting does it smell?

What is an infection of kidneys call?

A

Sugar - glycosuria
Protein - proteinuria
keytones - ketonuria

180 liters each day /

Bacteria will affect urine and smell like ammonia

pyelonephritis

150
Q

What are the 3 steps in urine formation

A

Glomerular filtration - water & solutes flow from the glomerulus into capsule. The membrane keeps blood cells and proteins in blood vessel

Reabsorption - Nutrients and water move back into the blood vessel from renal tubule

Secretion - Waste and H+ ions flow out of blood vessel into the renal tubule

151
Q

The thin segment of the nephron loops descending limb aids in the passive movement of

A

Solutes out of tubule

152
Q

Cells and transport proteins are physically prevented from passing through the filtrate membrane, This has the following effect on filtration

A

Increased osmotic pressure in glomerular capillaries that reduces the amount of filtration

153
Q

Increase in the permeability of the cells of the collecting duct to water is due to

A

increase in production of ADH

154
Q

What are 2 most important hormone regulators of electrolyte reabsorption and secretion

A

Aldosterone and epinephrine

155
Q

One of the functions of angiotensin II is

A

Constrict arteries

156
Q

Which of the following is not reabsorbed from the proximal convoluted tubule?

K+
Glucose
Na+
Creatine
Urea

A

Creatinine

157
Q

Fluid in the glomerular capsule is similar to that of plasma except that it does not contain a significant amount of

A

protein

158
Q

Describe the distribution of sodium and potassium between cells and body fluids

A

K+ mainly in cells, Na+ in body fluids

159
Q

Renin is released by

A

Kidneys

160
Q

What is the main role of Mg2+ in the body?

A

cofactors for intracellular enzymes

161
Q

What hormone functions to increase water reabsorption by inserting aquaporins in the tubule cell membrane

A

Vasopressin

162
Q

What are the 3 types of hypersensitivities?

A

Immediate hypersensitivity - AKA Acute - seconds after contact with allergen

Subacute hypersensitivity - slower onset 1-3 hours (mismatched blood transfusion)

hypersensitiveness - slow onset 1-3 days (poison IVY)

BIO 224 (20 decks)

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