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Microbiology > Exam 4 - TY > Flashcards

Exam 4 - TY Flashcards

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1
Q

What direction is DNA synthesis?

A

5’ - 3’

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2
Q

What is added in to build a DNA strand? Give 3 examples (building blocks)

A

Deoxynucleoside Triphosphates (dNTPs)

  1. DATP
  2. dTTP
  3. DGTP
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3
Q

In order to attach dNTPs, a removal of BLANK BLANK is needed, with only one per nucleoside. These contain energy that is released when broken apart, to attach dNTPs

A

2 phosphates

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4
Q

Reply some starting point - BLANK

A

Origin of replication

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5
Q

What are some factors of the replisome?

A
  • 250 BP
  • Higher conc. Of A and T (easier to pull apart with 2H bonds)
  • DNA A Proteins (Add tension)
  • Helicase (DnaB) (Pulls DNA apart)
  • DNA C (loads helicase)
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6
Q

How many BP is the replisome?

A

250BP

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7
Q

Why is there a higher concentration of A and T at the origin of replication?

A

Easier to pull apart since they have 2 H bonds compared to 3 of G and C

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8
Q

Adds tension at the OOR

A

DNA A proteins

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9
Q

Identifies the OOR

A

DNA A proteins

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10
Q

With DNA proteins, how many can bind?

A

Up to 40

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11
Q

How do DNA A proteins add tension?

A

Put pressure on H-bonds holding DNA strands together

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12
Q

What is helicase known as?

A

DNA B

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13
Q

What helps Helicase load onto strands?

A

DNA C

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14
Q

What two things are needed to stabilize single strands of DNA when pulled apart?

A
  1. Single stranded binding proteins (stabilize single strands)
  2. Topoisomerases (relieve supercooling tension)
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15
Q

What does DNA polymerase need to build a strand (specific)? And with this, what does it need/look for?

A

Primer since DNA polymerases cannot start de novo

Requires a free 3’ OH group

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16
Q

What provides a free 3’ OH group for a primer to attach?

A

Primase

  • complimentary, RNA based, 10 bases
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17
Q

How many bases is a primase?

A

10 bases

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18
Q

DNA polymerase has proofreading capabilities. It observes BLANK activity in a BLANK direction, usually BLANK bases per second. It also has different families (BLANK, BLANK, BLANK). Bacteria use family BLANK.

A

Exonuclease activity

  • 3; - 5’ direction
  • 1000 bases per second
  • A, B, C
  • Bacteria: Family C
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19
Q

What is the main replicative DNA polymerase?

A

DNA polymerase III

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20
Q

Bacteria have BLANK DNA Polymerases, with 2 involved in BLANK, and 3 involved in BLANK.

A
  • 5
  • 2 involved in replication
  • 3 involved in repair mechanisms
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21
Q

The replication fork is 2 strands, BLANK and BLANK.

A
  • Leading (continuous)
  • Lagging (discontinuous)
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22
Q

What does the lagging strand contain? How many bases in bacteria compared to humans?

A

Okazaki fragments

  • 1000 - 2000 bases in bacteria, 100 bases in Euk.
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23
Q

DNA polymerase has BLANK activity in the BLANK direction. Why can it not grow on an existing chain? How does it get around this?

A
  • 5’ to 3’ direction
  • it cannot grow due to the last phosphodiester linkage, which DNA ligaments provides to get around this
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24
Q

What provides the final phophodiester linkage for DNA Pol I?

A

DNA ligase

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25
Q

What is the only DNA polymerase that can do 5’ to 3’? What role does it serve?

A

DNA Pol. 1

  • mainly a backup
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26
Q

As you move away from the OOR, the chromosome folds down away from the other forming a BLANK. It keeps going around circular chromosome until it reaches BLANK at the opposite end? BLANK binds them and blocks against the replication fork.

A

Theta Structure

  • Ter sites (opposite OOR)
  • Tus proteins (bind Ter sites)
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27
Q

BLANK and BLANK unlink interlocked chromosomes, instead of DNA gyrase. Then we see a transfer of chromosomes to BLANK.

A

Topoisomerase IV and MukBEF

  • transfer chromosomes to FtsK
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28
Q

E. Coli replicate in as little as 20 minutes, when it should take 40. How?

A

Replication is a constant process that is always occurring for healthy bacterial cells. Taking chromosome into a cell that is already replicating, since there are multiple levels of replication occurring on the chromosomes taken up by the cells.

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29
Q

DNA REPLICATION
# of origins of replication

Bacteria:
Euk:
Archaea:

A

Bacteria: One
Euk: Many
Archaea: Few

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30
Q

DNA REPLICATION
Direction from origin?

Bacteria:
Euk:
Arch:

A

Bacteria: Bidirectional
Euk: Bidirectional
Arch: Bidirectional

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31
Q

DNA REPLICATION
Composition of replisome
A: DNA Polymerase
B: All other components

A

Bacteria
A: Family C
B: Unique replisome proteins

Euk
A: Family B
B: conserved replisome proteins

Arch
A: Family B
B: Conserved replisome proteins

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32
Q

DNA REPLICATION
Ends of replication in Bacteria, Euk, and Arch

A

Bacteria: Circular (Ter and Tus proteins)

Euk: Linear (Telomerase)

Archaea: Circular (we have no idea)

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33
Q

What are plasmids?

A

Extra chromosomal DNA found in the cytoplasm and not in the supercoiled chromosome

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34
Q

Give some characteristics of plasmids

A
  • Found in cytoplasm
  • double stranded
  • circular
  • bacteria and archaea
  • nonessential for normal growth
  • provide an advantage ro antibiotics and virulence plasmids
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35
Q

What advantages to plasmids give?

A

Antibiotics (resistance genes ‘= R plasmids)

Virulence plasmids (help bacteria cause infection by attachment proteins, toxins that damage host tissue, bacterions)

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36
Q

Plasmids are BLANK % of chromosome in size

A

5%

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37
Q

Some plasmids have higher BLANK, while others have lower

A

Copy numbers

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38
Q

T/F: Plasmids have a separate replication process, that usually occurs during binary fission.

A

True

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39
Q

What method of reproduction do plasmids use?

A

Rolling circle method

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40
Q

Explain the rolling circle method

A
  • Double stranded plasmid
  • one strand gets nicked
  • leaves a free 3’ hydroxyl group and a 5’ end exposed
  • DNA polymerase is able to extend from 3’ OH group
  • as it works itself around, it displaces the 5’ end
  • dangles like a tail, completely displaced from plasmid, DNA polymerases then come down here and work on it

NO THETA STRUCTURES

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41
Q

What is one huge difference in plasmid vs. chromosome replication?

A

Plasmids (rolling circle method) do not have theta structures

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42
Q

Transcription =

A

DNA to RNA

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43
Q

Translation =

A

RNA to Protein

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44
Q

Transcription is catalyzed by BLANK

A

RNA polymerase

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45
Q

DNA Vs. RNA

A
  1. Deoxyribose vs ribose
  2. Thymine vs. Uracil
  3. Double stranded vs. single stranded
  4. RNA has intrinsic helicase activity (no separate helicase)
  5. RNA can initiate new strands of nucleotides on its own with primers
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46
Q

BLANK has intrinsic helicase activity

A

RNA

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47
Q

RNA requires ribonucleotide triphosphates in a BLANK direction

A

5’ to 3’

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48
Q

Does RNA require a primer?

A

No

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49
Q

What is the structure of Bacterial RNA polymerase?

A

(Alpha2, Beta, Beta’, W) + Sigma

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50
Q

Initiation of transcription begins with what?

A

Finding the promoter

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51
Q

Bacterial Pribnow box

A

TATAAT

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52
Q

Bacterial Nucleotides:

A

TTGACA

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53
Q

Eukaryotic Nucleotides:

A

TATA

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54
Q

BLANK are regions of DNA where RNA transcriptase binds to begin

A

Promoters

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55
Q

What is the Eukaryotic promoter and what element does it have?

A

TATA box, with a B-recognition element

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56
Q

What do Euk use to locate promoters? And what does this do?

A

Transcription factors locate promoters. This turns on genes by binding the promoter regions)

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57
Q

T/F: Either strands can be the template strand, but transcription only occurs in 3’ to 5’

A

False: 5’ to 3’

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58
Q

Does the promoter transcribe the entire chromosome?

A

No, only specific genes

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59
Q

What are the two sites in bacteria that transcription can occur at?

A

Finding the promoter:

Pribinow box: TATAAT

35 bases upstream of start codon: TTGACA

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60
Q

In Bacteria, BLANK factors recognize promoters to begin transcription. These are homologous to BLANK in eukaryotes

A

Sigma factors

Homologous to transcription factors

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61
Q

Elongation of transcript can occur de nova, meaning no BLANK is needed. The BLANK factor cues it in, BLANK is added, which means BLANK is no longer necessary.

A
  • Primase
  • Sigma factor
  • RNA polymerase
  • Sigma Factor
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62
Q

What is the primary role of sigma factors? Can more than one be expressed?

A

Primary role is to get the promoter recognized, then it is removed from the RNA complex once it gets going.

Multiple can be expressed, but typically have one main one for transcription

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63
Q

What dictates the termination of transcription?

A

The DNA sequence, which contains the promoter

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64
Q

What are the two methods of Termination

A
  1. Intrinsic termination method
  2. Extra i sic termination method
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65
Q

Intrinsic termination method has everything “within”, so we don’t need extrinsic factors. Looking for high BLANK area with a BLANK. The complimentary bases in the RNA strand fold back together, creating a BLANK. This crowds BLANK and stalls is = dissassociation. Past this, we see a string of BLANK, which pair with U’s , having the weakest interaction following the stem loop structure.

A
  • GC content
  • inverted repeat
  • Stem loop structure
  • RNA polymerase
  • Adenines
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66
Q

Extrinsic termination method uses BLANK. This binds to the RNA message being made, not the DNA or RNA polymerase. BLANK binds to the BLANK site, within the RNA transcribed. Slides down RNA message to become a termination sequence at the end of the gene, usually involved in stem loop structure.

BLANK interacts with the stalled RNA polymerase and allows it to detach.

A
  • Rho proteins
  • Rho-protein binds to the Rut site
  • Rho
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67
Q

COMPARING TRANSCRIPTION PROCESS
How many RNA polymerases?

A

Bacteria: ONE

EUK: THREE
RNA Pol 1 = tRNA and rRNA
RNA Pol 2 = mRNA
RNA Pol 3 = tRNA and rRNA

Arch: ONE

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68
Q

COMPARING TRANSCRIPTION PROCESS

Composition of RNA polymerase (subunits)

A

Bacteria: 4 - 5 subunits

Euk: 12 subunits

Arch: 11 - 13 subunits

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69
Q

Is archaea RNA pol composition closer to Euk or bacteria ?

A

Eukaryotes

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70
Q

COMPARING TRANSCRIPTION PROCESS

Recognition of promoter

A

Bacteria: Sigma factor

Euk: Transcription factors (multiple)

Archaea: Transcription factors (less)

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71
Q

COMPARING TRANSCRIPTION PROCESS

Termination of transcription

A

Bacteria:
1. Intrinsic method
2. Rho-protein mediated

Euk: Termination signal w/ terminator protein (not the same as Rho)

Archaea:
1. Inverted repeats followed by AT rich DNA sequence
2. Lack inverted repeats but contain repeated runs of thymine’s
3. ETA-termination protein (similar to Rho)

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72
Q

More than one gene in a prokaryotic mRNA transcript =

A

Polycistronic mRNA

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73
Q

One gene per transcript =

A

Monocistronic (Euk)

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74
Q

Where do post-transcriptional modification take place for monocistronic transcripts

A

In the nucleus

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75
Q

What are some post-transcriptional modification we observe ?

A
  1. 5’ cap (7-methylguanosine) = helps initiate translation
  2. 3’ End (Poly A tail) = stability, gauges life time of mRNA, 200 nucleotides long, degrades over time
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76
Q

Transcription yield mRNA, and what else?

A

tRNA = transfer RNA

.rRNA = ribosomal RNA

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77
Q

Translation =

A

Making a protein

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78
Q

What is the language of mRNA?

A

The genetic code

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79
Q

The genetic code is read is series of triplets called BLANK

A

Codons

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80
Q

Each codon encodes for a specific BLANK

A

Amino acid

81
Q

tRNA is more stable than mRNA, why?

A

Secondary structure of tRNA prevents ribonuclease action

82
Q

BLANK, BLANK, and BLANK are required to synthesize proteins which is needed for everything else

A

MRNA, tRNA, rRNA

83
Q

What provides longevity ?

A

Poly A tail

84
Q

What is involved in the initiation of translation?

A

5’ cap (7-methylguanozine)

85
Q

What is the start codon

A

AUG

86
Q

What are the stop codons?

A

UAA
UAG
UGA

87
Q

The first two codons are most important for determining the amino acid, the third is not, which is referred to as BLANK

A

Wobble site

88
Q

AUG codes for:
Euk =
Bac =

A

Euk = Met

Bacteria = Formyl methionine

89
Q

Do stop codons code for amino acids?

A

No

90
Q

What does tRNA do?

A

Brings amino acids to the ribosome to be incorporated into the growing polypeptide

91
Q

How long is tRNA?

A

73 - 93 nucleotides long

92
Q

tRNA has regions of secondary structure due to intrastate complementarity. What does this do / create?

A

Allows for greater stability (longevity)

= Clover leaf structure

93
Q

TRNA has regions complementary to the appropriate codon for the amino acid it binds, this includes the BLANK loop and BLANK end

A
  • Anticodon loop
  • Acceptor end
94
Q

What are some modified bases in tRNA that add stability?

A
  • Pseudouridine
  • Dihydrosuridine
  • Dimethylguanozine
95
Q

BLANK binds to the appropriate codon for the amino acid bound at the acceptor end (3’ end)

A

Anticodon

96
Q

Why is tRNA more stable than mRNA?

A

TRNA has a secondary clover-leaf structure due to intrastrand base pairing, as well as modified bases (pseudouridine)

97
Q

IF =

A

Initiation factor

98
Q

BLANK, BLANK, BLANK nucleotides at the BLANK end of tRNA forms the acceptor end adding enzyme. This post-transcriptional modification is done by BLANK

A

C, C, A

3’ end

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases

99
Q

What percent of rRNA and protein are in ribosomes at the site of protein synthesis?

A

60% rRNA
40% protein

100
Q

Bacteria / Archaea
Total = A
Small subunit = B = C.
Large subunit = D = E and F

A

Total = 70s
Small subunit = 30s —> 16s rRNA
Large subunit = 50s —> 5s and 23s rRNA

101
Q

Eukarya Ribosome

Total=
Small =
Large =

A

Total = 80s
Small = 40s —> 18s rRNA
Large = 60s —> 5s, 5.8s, 28s rRNA

102
Q

The initiation of translation brings together what 3 things?

A
  1. MRNA transcript
  2. TRNA bearing the first amino acid of the protein
  3. Two ribosomal subunits
103
Q

What is critical to the initiation of translation?

A

Shine=-Delgarno sequence (ribosome recognition site)

104
Q

What is the ribosome recognition site?

A

Shine-Dealgarno sequence

105
Q

Where is the shine-delgarno sequence located?

A

Within the 5’ end of mRNA

106
Q

BLANK binds to the BLANK rRNA within the small ribosomal subunit. This allows for the start codon to be positioned correctly for binding the first tRNA.

A

Shine-delgarno

16s rRNA

107
Q

BLANK - s Subunit has initiation factor bound, this is normally referred to as BLANK

A

30s

  • IF3
108
Q
A
109
Q

The 30s subunit has initiation factor (IF-3) bound. This does what?

A

Prevents agglomeration with 50s subunit

110
Q

MRNA transcript has a (3’ or 5’) (Untranslated or translated) region with ribosome binding site. This is referred to as the BLANK

A

5’ Untranslated

  • Shine Delgado sequence
111
Q

The Shine-Delgado sequence basic pairs with the BLANK end on the BLANK rRNA in the 50s subunit

A

3’ end on the 16s rRNA

112
Q

Once the Shine-Delgado sequence binds, the BLANK is now bound

A

Small subunit

113
Q

Once the small subunit is bound, BLANK is now available for recognition by tRNA carrying BLANK

A
  • AUG start codon
  • formal-methionine
114
Q

The first tRNA binds with the help of BLANK to the future BLANK site

A

IF-2

  • P-site
115
Q

BLANK displaces IF-3 to allow association of the BLANK subunit

A

IF-1

  • 50s subunit
116
Q

Small subunit -> BLANK -> BLANK -> Large subunit

A
  • mRNA
  • tRNA
117
Q

BLANK uses energy to ensure tRNA binding then disassociates as well

A

IF-2

118
Q

BLANK = displaces IF-3 to allow association of the 50s subunit

BLANK = helps tRNA bind to the future P-site then disassociates

BLANK = the normal initiation factor bound to the 30s subunit

A

IF-1

IF-2

IF-3

119
Q

What is the order of sites on the ribosome?

A

A -> P -> E

120
Q

Where does the first tRNA start? What is the first tRNA?

A

The P-site

  • pseudomethionine
121
Q

Once the first tRNA binds, where do subsequent tRNA molecules bind first?

A

At the A-site

122
Q

BLANK help the proper functioning of elongation

A

Elongation factors

123
Q

What are some elongation factors?

A

EF-Tu

EF-Ts

Peptides Transferase

EF-G

124
Q

BLANK Brings tRNA to the A site, hydrolyzes BLANK to lock correct tRNA in place.

A

EF-Tu

GTP

125
Q

BLANK recycles GTP onto BLANK and takes away spent GDP. This ensures steady supply of EEF-Tu ready to bind new tRNA

A

EF-Ts

EF-Tu

126
Q

BLANK catalyzes the addition of AA from the P-site to the A-site. This is also referred to as a BLANK. The 23s rRNA component of the BLANK subunit.

A

Peptidyl Transferase

  • Ribozyme
  • large subunit
127
Q

Once the P-site tRNA is empty, the BLANK translocates (moves downstream by 1 codon = 3 nucleotides). This is facilitated by BLANK and uses energy

A

Ribosome

  • EF-G
128
Q

Once the empty tRNA moves, full tRNA moves from BLANK to BLANK site.

A

Moves from A site to P site

129
Q

What is the rate of Amino acids per second in a bacterial cell ribosome

A

16 AA / Second

130
Q

How is termination brought about in the A-site?

A

Stop codon

131
Q

Stop codons are bound by what?

A

Release factors (RF 1-3)

132
Q

BLANK cleaves peptide bond with no new AA to attach, releasing the finished polypeptide

A

Peptidyl Transferase

133
Q

Once the amino acid is cleaved and let loose, what two things dissociate and reset to starting conditions?

A

Ribosome and mRNA

134
Q

Each gene in a BLANK mRNA transcript is translated independently as each gene has its own BLANK sequence and BLANK codon.

A

Polycistronic

  • Shine-dalgarno sequence
  • Stop codon
135
Q

T/F: Multiple ribosomes can work on the same mRNA molecule simultaneously

A

True

136
Q

Are Polysomes unique to prokaryotes>

A

NO

137
Q

Why can transcription and translation occur simultaneously in prokaryotes?

A

They lack a nucleus to separate the two processes

138
Q

COMPARING TRANSLATION

Simultaneous transcription and translation?

A

Bacteria: Yes

Euk: No

Archaea: Yes

139
Q

COMPARING TRANSLATION

Recognition of mRNA by small ribosomal subunit

A

Bacteria: Shine-Delgarno

Eukarya: 5’ cap

Archaea: Shine Delgarno

140
Q

COMPARING TRANSLATION

Coding of start codon

A

Bacteria: Formyl-Met

Euk: Met

Archaea: Met

141
Q

COMPARING TRANSLATION

Amount of translation factors

A

Bacteria: Fewer, less complex

Eukarya: More, more complex

Archaea: More, Less complex

142
Q

COMPARING TRANSLATION

Amount of termination factors

A

Bacteria = 3

Eukarya = 1

Archaea = 1

143
Q

BLANK proteins help most proteins fold, there are systems. What are they?

A

Chaperone proteins

DNA K and DNA J

144
Q

DNA K and DNA J are both BLANK dependent enzymes that make sure proteins don’t fold too fast to ensure the right connections are made. If it was too fast, mistakes would be made.

A

ATP dependent enzymes

145
Q

BLANK and BLANK fold whatever DNA K and J don’t, or if additional help is needed

A

GroEL and GroES

146
Q

What is a great trigger for our immune system, and why?

A

Formyl-Met since we do not have these. This is often observed since the first codon is typically cleaved away (removed), however, bacteria tend to miss or not cleave all of their proteins.

147
Q

Our white blood cells often have BLANK receptors

A

Formyl-Met receptors

148
Q

Where do most of our proteins go through to have extra processing and to fulfill sugaring process? (Two places)

A

ER and Golgi

149
Q

Bacteria do not have organelles, however, they under go BLANK to sugar proteins

A

Glycosylation

150
Q

Antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis often target what? Why is this not a great target?

A

70s ribosome. We have a 70s ribosome in our mitochondria, but it is housed within an organelle so small douses will not influence mitochondrial ribosomes. Large doses can hurt us.

151
Q

What are some groups of antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis?

A

Aminoglycosides

Tetracyclines

Chloramphenicol

Macrolides

152
Q

Tend to be bigger, not the easiest thing to get across the membrane.

PICK ONE:

A) Aminoglycosides
B) Tetracyclines
C) Chloramphenicol
D) Macrolides

A

Aminoglycosides

153
Q

Examples include Streptomycin, Gentamycin, Tobramycin, Neomycin

PICK ONE:

A) Aminoglycosides
B) Tetracyclines
C) Chloramphenicol
D) Macrolides

A

Aminoglycosides

154
Q

Obtained from Streptomyces

PICK ONE:

A) Aminoglycosides
B) Tetracyclines
C) Chloramphenicol
D) Macrolides

A

Aminoglycosides and Tetracyclines

155
Q

Obtained from Streptomyces Venezuelae

PICK ONE:

A) Aminoglycosides
B) Tetracyclines
C) Chloramphenicol
D) Macrolides

A

Chloramphenicol

156
Q

Composition: Cyclohexane ring, one or more amino sugars.
Binds to: 30s ribosomal subunit causing misreading of the mRNA message

PICK ONE:

A) Aminoglycosides
B) Tetracyclines
C) Chloramphenicol
D) Macrolides

A

Aminoglycosides

157
Q

Can be used against Gram (-) and Gram (+), used mainly against gram (-) enterics

PICK ONE
A) Aminoglycosides
B) Tetracyclines
C) Chloramphenicol
D) Macrolides

A

Aminoglycosides

158
Q

BLANK inhibit reproduction (type of medication)

A

Bacteriostatic

159
Q

Can be toxic, causing deafness, sickness, etc.

PICK ONE
A) Aminoglycosides
B) Tetracyclines
C) Chloramphenicol
D) Macrolides

A

Aminoglycosides

160
Q

Are Aminoglycosides bacteriocidal or bacterostatic ?

A

Bacteriocidal

161
Q

Binds to the 30s ribosomal subunit, inhibits entrance of tRNAs into the A site

PICK ONE
A) Aminoglycosides
B) Tetracyclines
C) Chloramphenicol
D) Macrolides

A

Tetracyclines

162
Q

Negatives: Can disrupt calcium levels, issues with veterinarian over usage, gets into the environment and can effect us

PICK ONE
A) Aminoglycosides
B) Tetracyclines
C) Chloramphenicol
D) Macrolides

A

Tetracyclines

163
Q

Binds to the 50S ribosomal subunit, inhibits formation of peptide bond between amino acids (transpeptidase enzyme)

PICK ONE
A) Aminoglycosides
B) Tetracyclines
C) Chloramphenicol
D) Macrolides

A

Chloramphenicol

164
Q

Negatives: used as a last resort due to severe side effect, causes aplastic anemia, depresses bone marrow function (since RBC depleted)

PICK ONE
A) Aminoglycosides
B) Tetracyclines
C) Chloramphenicol
D) Macrolides

A

Chloramphenicol

165
Q

Less side effects than others, safer

PICK ONE
A) Aminoglycosides
B) Tetracyclines
C) Chloramphenicol
D) Macrolides

A

Macrolides

166
Q

Examples: Erythromycin, Clarithromycin, Azithromycin

A

Macrolides

167
Q

Binds to 50S ribosomal subunit, prevents translocation of ribosome (elongation factor: EFG)

PICK ONE
A) Aminoglycosides
B) Tetracyclines
C) Chloramphenicol
D) Macrolides

A

Macrolides

168
Q

Contains lactose rings to one or more sugars

PICK ONE
A) Aminoglycosides
B) Tetracyclines
C) Chloramphenicol
D) Macrolides

A

Macrolides

169
Q

What is an example of post-translational control

A

Regulating enzyme activity

170
Q

Series of enzymes that go to make an end product that the cell needs, end product concentration is usually the signal: (TYPE OF INHIBITION)

A

Feedback inhibition

171
Q

Where and what binds in feedback inhibition?

A

The end product binds to the second site of the first enzyme (allosteric), disrupting the active site.

172
Q

Feedback inhibition involves BLANK enzymes

A

Allosteric enzymes

173
Q

BLANK: catalyzes the same reaction but has a different regulatory control

A

Isoenzyme

174
Q

BLANK Feedback inhibition involves the use of isoenzymes which are different proteins that catalyze the same reaction but are under different regulatory controls

A

Concerted feedback inhibition

175
Q

Concerted feedback inhibition: How do we inhibit this pathway fully?

A

Must inhibit all 3 of the products, only one or two will incrementally knock it down.

176
Q

What are some covalent modification of enzymes ?

A

Addition or removal of a particular group/molecule

177
Q

What are some main groups of added enzymes?

A

Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
Inorganic phosphate (PO4 2-)
Methyl Groups (CH3)

178
Q

Give an example of a covalent modification enzyme

A

Glutamine synthetase (GS)

179
Q

Regulation at the translation level includes regulating what?

A

Enzyme synthesis

180
Q

What are two examples of regulation at the translational level?

A
  1. Riboswitches
  2. Small RNAs (sRNA’s)
181
Q

In riboswitches, BLANK is set up as a riboswitch

A

MRNA

182
Q

BLANK region at the 5’ end of a riboswitch

A

Aptamer region

183
Q

What is a specific secondary structure that allows for metabolite binding in riboswitches?

A

Aptamer region

184
Q

Metabolite bound = BLANK blocked, inhibits BLANK from being recognized

A
  • Translation blocked
  • inhibits Shine Delgarno
185
Q

Metabolite not bound - BLANK is seen by ribosomal RNA to make what we need

A

Shine Delgarno Sequence

186
Q

In riboswitches, mRNA contains a binding site for a specific metabolite, which when bound alters the mRNA hiding in the BLANK

A

Shine-Delgarno sequence

187
Q

How many nucleotides are small RNA’s ?

A

40 - 400 nucleotides

188
Q

BLANK is a regulation at a translational level, uses a complimentary sequence / pairing to its base target. Includes four different mechanisms.

A

Small RNA’s

189
Q

What are the 4 different mechanisms for sRNAs ?

A
  1. Hides Shine Delgarno (decrease initiation)
  2. Opens up Shine Delgarno / more accessible (increase initiation)
  3. Increase stability
  4. Decrease stability
190
Q

Regulation of transcription =

A

Regulating enzyme synthesis

191
Q

What is a mechanism of regulating transcription?

A

Attenuation

192
Q

T/F: Attentuation is only in prokaryotes

A

True

193
Q

What is needed for attenuation to occur?

A

Transcription and translation at the same time, which can only occur in prokaryotes (no nucleus)

194
Q

BLANK is a sequence, an example is the Tandem tryptophan residues located at the N-term

A

Leader sequence

195
Q

In a leader sequence, tandem residues form at the N-term, the rest is able to form BLANK structures.

A

Secondary structures

196
Q

Leader sequence:

If tryptophan is plentiful = do not need to transcribe anymore = inhibit transcription

If tryptophan is in short supply = need to transcribe more

A

Look above lol

197
Q

Too much tryptophan = turn off transcription by having BLANK residues of tryptophan. BLANK forms further away, closer to BLANK, creating a stem loop that causes RNA polymerase to BLANK. Secondary structure int=reacts and terminates transcription

A

Tandem

Secondary structure

RNA polymerase

Stop

198
Q

Not enough tryptophan = BLANK has a hard time finding tRNA with tryptophan, lacking a leader sequence. Secondary structure forms BLANK since ribosome is not zipping through it. Secondary structure forms further from RNA polymerase, does not disrupt it.

A

Ribosome

Earlier

Microbiology (30 decks)

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