Exam # 2 Flashcards
Includes: Equine Nutrition, Ruminant Nutrition, Swine Nutrition, Food and Feedstuffs, Pet food Labels, Dog and Cat Nutrition
What occurs with the levels of antibodies in the sows milk? What happens to the piglets ability to absorb antibodies?
Decreases rapidly over first 24 hours. Antibodies half over first 4 hours. Composition rapidly changes in first 24 hours. Piglets ability to absorb antibodies reduces rapidly. Piglets are capable of very high intakes of colostrum
What can occur in Vitamin A deficiency?
Deficiency
– Impaired Growth
– Reproductive Failure
– Dermatoses
– Mucus membranes damage
– Immune deficiency
What can occur in vitamin E deficiency? What can occur in vitamin E excess?
• Deficiency
– Reproductive failure
– Pansteatitis in cats
• Fed diet high in PUFA’s with insufficient Vit E (Tuna Diet) ( inflammation in their own fat, and cause pain. This is due to oxidative damage)
• Excess
– Possible increase need for Vit A and Vit D
What occurs with calcium in acidosis?
- Less calcium is bound, causing the release of calcium from the bones. Calcium from bone can also be used as a buffer.
What occurs with Vitamin E and Selenium?
Synergistic effect as antioxidants (low amounts in one require
supplementation of the other)
• Prevent lipid peroxidation in the cell membranes- glutathione
peroxidase
What is excess glucose called in cats? What is true about cats ability to utilize glucose?
Excess glucose in cats: galactosemia and galactosuria
– Less efficient dietary sugar use
– Although they are constantly in gluconeogenesis
What else is important when looking at a food label on pet food?
Don’t get hung up on the ingredient
list!
• In most cases, nutrients are more important than ingredients
• The ingredient list provides
ingredients in the order of their
weight before processing
• Can be manipulated to make the listlook more appealing
– For example: Don’t like corn to be high on your list? Use some corn and some corn gluten meal – Just like that- its lower on the list!
What do horses eat?
Grass- good for digestion
Hay/ Haylage - Provides fiber (satiates + gi motility working) particularly in cooler months when pasture is unavailable.
Fruit and veggies- add moisture to feed
Concentrates: concentratead energy source
Salt : good to offer to help replenish electrolytes.
How much glucose is needed to produce milk? What does that mean for cows? What is the most common milk cow in the US? How many lbs of milk can a cow make in a day? When is another time the reqiures more glucose?
- 2 lbs glucose needed to make 6 gallons of milk.
- Liver is in state of constant gluconeogenesis during lactation and requires constant supply of propionate.
- Can make 150 lbs of milk (18 gallons) per day.
- Requires more glucose during third trimester of gestation.
What are the physical signs of malnutrition? What should you do if you suspect malnutrition? What are the levels of risk of nutrition related problems?
- Weight loss and Muscle loss
- Determine adequacy of the current diet for the physiological status of the animal
• Estimate risk of nutrition related problem
– High
– Moderate
– Low
What are the effects of excessive air speed for pigs?
Excessive air speed causes
• Reduced effective temperature
• Incorrect lying behaviour
• Vices such as tail-biting
What is the effect of panting? Why do dogs pant? What can occur if a dog becomes dehydrated?
- Dogs don’t sweat (much)
- Most water loss is through evaporation
- Not much sodium is lost in drool saliva
- Dehydration may quickly lead to plasma hyperosmolality
- Added electrolytes to water -> hyperosmolality is not corrected
What is Mg necessary for?
Adenyl cyclase activity, which is required for parathyroid hormone release. ( Which is important for absorption of calcium)
What is important to remember about cats ability to break down carbohydrates?
- Low activity of enzymes that break down CHO such as amylase
• Low adaptability of glucose transporters in the intestines (if meal is high in glucose, not all of it will be absorbed and remainder can cause fermentation, and water loss in intestines)
• Glucose is absorbed via Na dependent transmembrane
mechanism as well as passive diffusion
• Fructose is Na independent
What can cause low colostrum production in swine?
MA (Mastitis/Metritis/Agalactia) may cause failure or low production
Where are starches, simple sugars, proteins, vitamins, and minerals found? Where is fiber found? What has a high content of starch?
- STARCHES AND SIMPLE SUGARS, AS WELL AS PROTEINS, VITAMINS, MINERALS, ARE FOUND IN THE PLANT CELL’S CYTOSOL WHEREAS FIBER COMPRISES THE CELL WALL AND SOLUBLE FIBER IS IN THE INTERCELLULAR SPACE FORMING A MATRIX THAT HOLDS CELLS TOGETHER
- SEEDS (GRAINS) HAVE A HIGH CONTENT OF STARCH. THEY HAVE AN OUTER LAYER THAT NEEDS TO BE BROKEN
What are age related factors in geriatric factors that decrease their ability to adapt? What should you do to make sure you are providing optimal nutrition?
• Changes in body composition and metabolic rates • Decreased ability to adapt to:
– Excess – Deficiency – Nutrient Quality – Intake
• Special Senses
• Evaluate individually
What are the symptoms and mechanisms occuring with low iodine? High iodine?
Iodine is important to make triiodothyronine and thyroxine.
Low iodine -> low thyroid hormone production
Excess iodine -> negative feedback for TSH release from pituitary -> Low thyroid hormone production.
You can also see Goiter and hypothyroidism in these patients.
What is important to remember when feeding the critically ill horse?
There are little data on feeding hospitalized horses and its
association or effect on morbidity and mortality
However, plenty of data exists in people and other species to demonstrate that a catabolic state reduces prognosis
Nutritional intervention should be considered if the horse is
not fed for longer than 48 hours in an animal with good
physiological status
Less if obese, underlying metabolic disease, growing or
very sick
Enteral nutritional support: a nasogastric feeding tube can be
passed and used temporarily, or an indwelling esophageal
feeding tube can be placed The horse should be checked for gastric reflux before feeding
What are some examples of diseases seen in pomeranians?
Pomeranian- picky eater, dental disease
What is a good energy source for animals who are not being exercised (in terms of geriatric horses)? How should the food be prepared and what should be avoided?
If there are no contraindications: oil as an energy source rather than cereal starch - especially for those animals not being exercised
If any cereals, other than oats, are fed make sure they are processed by cooking (e.g., steam flaking, micronizing) to make the starch more easily digested, reducing the risk of starch overload
Avoid feeding large grain-based meals: restrict meal sizes
Will sports drinks be helpful ?
Do antioxidants help working dogs? Creatine? BCAA?
Sports drinks: Not really
Antioxidants: Unknown
Creatine: No proven benefit
BCAA: Probably enough, not enough to help
What is the ideal BCS for a horse at rest/ maintenance? What is their Daily energy requirement?
What about a performance horse?
What about a horse who completes ranch work?
Rest / Maintanence: 4-6 (0.33 x kg bodyweight)
Performance: 5-6 ( 1.4 x (DER for rest))
Ranch work: 4-5 (1.6 x (DER for rest))
When will adult maintenance diets not be ideal for patients?
- Kidney
- Pancreatitis
- Gastrointestinal
- Adverse reaction to food
- Critical patient
What is grass tetany? What is the clinical signs?
- Graze lush pastures can lead to hypomagnesemia.
- Clinical signs: repetitive muscle contractions that are uncontrolled, hyperirritability and convulsions.
- Start with muscle tremors and progress to tetany.
Clinical signs by stage:
Early: Muscle fasiculations, hyperesthesia, stiff goose stepping gait. Animal may be irritable or maybe aggressive. Can be bellowing with an overly alert , nervous expression
Later: Recombency and convulsion, paddling motions with limb, extensor rigidity, opisthotonus, death can occur from respiratory/ cardiac arrest.
What occurs when a horse has excess protien? What kind of process is protien metabolism?
• Rare
• Increased heat production
• Protein is thermogenic
• Can be a problem in hot climate or
during performance
• Can lead to ammonia smell in
the urine
• Expensive
• Could lead to obesity?
• Possibly increased growth in
juvenile horses?
- Protein metabolism is thermogenic, so their could be increased heat production in preformance horses.
What percent of minerals in the body accounts for calcium and phosphorus? What is Phos important for? What is calcium important for? What is the storage pool for these minerals and how does the blood level remain constant ?
• Calcium and phosphorus comprise
70% of all the minerals in the body.
• The bone is the storage pool for
these minerals (the ionized calcium
in the blood remains constant by
drawing from the bone if needed)
• P is important for energy
metabolism (ATP), membrane
function and enzyme regulation
• Ca is important for neural function,
enzyme activity, cell signaling etc
What occurs with taurine deficiency? When was the first time it was recognized?
• Taurine deficiency in cats has been recognized
since 1975
• Taurine-deficiency dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) of cats represents a failure in contractility
– presumably due to abnormal calcium-ion balance in the myocardial cell
• Taurine deficiency impacts ability to regulate ionic
flux in photoreceptor cells in the retina
• When retinal taurine concentration is reduced
structure and function deteriorate progressively
What would a donkeys typical diet contain?
- Typical diet would include wheat or barley straw or stover (leaves and
stalks of crops such as corn)
• Straw can be fed ad-lib - Low energy density
What is forage- pasture?
- PASTURE: PLANTS THAT ARE AVAILABLE FOR GRAZING
- EITHER CULTIVATED (PLANTED) OR WILD (NATIVE)
- MAY OR MAY NOT BE IRRIGATED
Why do we maximize intake during lactation?
This is because though the sow is taking in a normal amount of food her BCS will drop from increased energy expenditure, so we need to try to minimize that drop as much as possible.
What are the fat soluable vitamins?
- Vitamin K
- Vitamin A
- Vitamin D
- Vitamin E
What can cause white muscle disease?
Vitamin E and Selenium deficiency
What are the clinical signs of heinz body anemia? What else can you see with heinz body anemia?
Clinical signs: Jaundice, dyspnea, tachycardia, hematuria, fatigue and hypotension.
What will you see?
- Excessive formation of Heinz bodies, and attachment to membranes increases their rigidity and renders them susceptible to fragmentation in the spleen.
- They are the result of ROS which can cause intravascular lysis of RBCs leading to hemoglobinemia and hemoglobinuria.
- Methemoglobinemia ( brown plasma) can occur in animals from oxidant induced injury of iron in hemoglobin (Fe2+ -> Fe3+ producing methemoglobin)
- Cats more susceptible than dogs, but its still highly unrecommended overall. No benefit of garlic.
What would the protien requirement be in first trimesters and the last? Why does that change? What is a good feed for a pregnant mare? What can you balance the feed with?
Protein requirement would increase to 8% in the first trimesters and 10% in
the last trimester. this is because more protien is needed in the final trimester to produce the fetus’ tissues and help support lactation.
- High protein feed: legume grass, legume hay
- Can balance a meal with grass hay and high protein grain (12% protein DM)
What are the clincial signs of white muscle disease?
Clinical signs
• Lethargy
• In foals- unable to curl tongue to suckle
• May cause aspiration pneumonia – if tracheal muscles are affected
Yellow fat disease- a condition that causes steatitis
Steatitis- inflammation of fat stores.
What can you see that will lead you to a diagnosis of white muscle disease?
- Low Vitamin E concentration ( plasma levels can be variable)
- Can biopsy liver and muscle stores (avoid fat stores, they are not reliable)
- High Creatine Kinase, and AST (shows recent muscle damage)
- Low RBC glutathione peroxidase (selenium deficiency)
What is Dry matter intake? What is dry matter intake used for? what is it expressed as?
KILOGRAM DRY MATTER (WATER REMOVED) IS SOMETIMES USED TO EXPRESS INTAKE.
DRY MATTER INTAKE ESTIMATES ARE ALSO USED TO CALCULATE THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS PROVIDED IN THE FEED
• DAILY DRY MATTER INTAKE, EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF MATURE BODYWEIGHT AT MAINTENANCE
What is aftermath? What is the term that is used to reference this?
• THE FORAGE THAT REGROWS IS CALLED AFTERMATH, STUBBLE, OR
RESIDUE
• IT IS A HIGH QUALITY, NUTRIENT RICH AND LUSH FORAGE.
- Stubble is often the term used when referring to corn or other grain.
What are the breed related disease factors?
Breed associated diseases
– Orthopedic
– Obesity
– Urinary stones
– Food Hypersensitivity
What is the best way to determine hays quality? What other ways can you determine this?
Most reliable and most representative: Lab analysis (core biopsy)
Other ways:
- appearance, color, smell
Be careful to make sure the hay is not bad on outside and good inside.
What should you provide to suckling piglets for water requirements?
- Access to fresh clean water via correctly positioned nipple or bowl- type drinker
- Drain the water pipe system about 10 days after farrowing or link into sow line
Why do cats need taurine supplementation?
• Cats possess the entire enzymatic pathway to form
taurine from methionine/cysteine
• Two enzymes along the pathway have low activity
(cysteine dioxygenase and cysteinesulphinic acid
decarboxylase)
- Too slow and does not allow for enough taurine to be made.
• ‘Double Whammy’
– Low endogenous production of taurine
– Loss of taurine in the bile
What is the difference between natural gestation periods, lactation periods, and growth periods vs. commercial farms?
The gestation timeframe is the same but the lactation period is more than 50% less and the growth timeframe is lessened as well
What is important for the diet requirements of the suckling foal? What is creep feed? What does it include?
• The main diet is the mare’s milk; however will show interest in other
food such as the mare’s grain and creep feed
• Creep feed: the feed that is offered to suckling animals (also beef,
swine, small ruminants) to support growth in addition to milk
• Creep feed would typically include corn, oat, barley
What do cats utilize amino acids for? What is the effect of cats being fed a limited protein diet?
• Amino acids are important to build protein and used as a source of energy and gluconeogenesis
• Amino acids are also utilized to form ketoacids as substrates for energy or glucose production
• Cats are unable to decrease the activity of transaminase/ deaminase enzymes when fed a
limited protein diet
• This is likely since cats are strict carnivores and adapted to high protein intake
What is vital for a piglets health? What age are piglets most susceptible to diarrhea? What can you do to help growth efficiency?
- Colostrum consumption is vital for the piglet’s health
- Piglets in the ages of 3-6 weeks are most susceptible to diarrhea
- Maintaining pigs at a thermoneutral environment can help growth efficiency
What are the important intermediates for the urea cycle?
Arginine
Citruline
Arginosuccinate
Omithine
What is rumination? When does it occur?
- Rumination- regurgitation of ingesta from the reticulum followed by remastication and reswallowing.
- Effective mechanical breakdown and increases substrate surface area to fermentive microbes.
- Usually occurs when cow is at rest.
How are dogs muscles different from humans?
Dogs differ from human beings in that dogs are
adapted for long-distance running using the
aerobic metabolism of fat
What are the three different layers in the ruminant stomach? What is in each layer?
• 3 different layers. Gas is most dorsal. Then todays hay since it is not as broken down yet. Followed by grain and yesterdays hay (which has had some time to ferment and settle. Bottom Layer is higher in liquids and smaller particles.
What is parenteral nutrition? When is it used? What are its components?
If the gut function is impaired, parenteral nutrition may be
administered
The formula is custom made under a hood
Components used in formulating parenteral nutrition include:
protein in the form of amino acids
carbohydrates in the form of dextrose
lipids in the form of long chain fatty acids
May be safer to avoid in donkeys, ponies and other horses prone
to hyperlipidemia
electrolytes and vitamins
The catheter, line and bag must be kept as clean as possible
In Nature: What kind of animals are pigs? What do they do the majority of their lives? How many piglets do they have?
- Omnivores
- Exploration
- 5-8 piglets
What is Hay? How is it collected, and what is good about the level of moisture in hay?
• HAY IS CUT FORAGE THAT IS DRIED AND HAS 90% DRY MATTER AND 10% MOISTURE
• IT IS CUT AND COLLECTED IN BALES (SQUARE OR ROUND) AND STACKS
• DUE TO LOW % MOISTURE, HAY CAN BE STORED FOR A RELATIVELY LONG PERIOD OF TIME WITHOUT MOLD
OR PUTREFACTION
What kind of diet is given to dogs who are running alot and quickly? What kind of diet is given to dogs who are running more distance paced running?
- ) High in carbohydrates
- ) Diet with more fat.
What can occur in salt deficiency?
• Uncommon as long as salt is
available
• May cause weakness
• Decreased sweating
• Decreased performance
• Decreased sweating
• Decreased lactation
• Pica
What are toxic foods for companion animals? Why is each one considered toxic?
- Avocado: toxic for birds( can cause respiratory signs in birds) (not dogs/ cats ( can be given but pit can cause obstruction)
- Chocolate: Contains theobromine which dogs/cats). is an alkaloid that can cause a variety of clinical signs. Toxic doses of theobromine are as low as 20 mg/kg. You can see GI signs, cardiac, and neurologic signs.
- More pure the chocolate - More toxic
- Grapes / Rasins: Can cause kidney injury in dogs and cats. Toxin is unknown. Appears safe in birds/ reptiles in moderation.
- Macadamia Nuts: Can cause weakness, depression, vomiting, tremors, and hyperthermia in dogs. Signs usually appear within 12 hours of ingestion and can last 12- 48 hours.
- Allium species: ( garlic, onion, leek, chives) cause gastroenteritis and Heinz body anemia ( oxidative damage leading to hemolytic anemia)
- Xylitol: Common sweetener in sugar free foods. Can cause insulin increase (hypoglycemia from increased insulin) and liver failure in dogs. Xylitol is metabolized by the liver and intermediates are phosphorylated and deplete ATP from hepatocytes. Can also cause oxidative damage.
- Kabocha squash - can cause GI signs in dogs ( other pumpkins/ squash are fine)
- Raw dough- not toxic but can cause GI obstruction
- High fat foods: Not exactly toxic but can cause severe GI signs and pancreatitis in some dogs.
What is the National Research Counsel Minimal Requirement?
What is the National Research Counsel Adequate Intake?
- NRC Minimal requirement-
minimal concentration or
amount of bioavailable
nutrient that will support a
defined physiological state
• NRC Adequate intake - the
concentration in the diet or
amount required by the
animal of a nutrient that is
presumed to sustain any
given life stage when no
minimal requirement has
been demonstrated
Which AAFCO statement is the “ loophole”?
- “X is formulated to meet the nutritional levels established by the AAFCO Dog (or cat) Food Nutrient Profiles for Y.
- “Animal feeding tests using AAFCO procedures substantiate that X provides complete and balanced nutrition for Y.”
- “X provides complete and balanced nutrition for Y and is comparable to a product which has been substantiated using AAFCO feeding tests”
Statement 3
- This particular product has not undergone a feeding trial. Gives company leeway of what is comparable.
What is a horses daily energy requirements? What % dry matter would allow horses to meet their daily requirement on good quality forage? What is their max DMI consumption per day?
Daily energy requiremet: 33 Mcal/100kg BW/day
Daily needs DMI on good quality forage -> 1-1.5 % BW DMI
Max consumption DMI: 3-3.5 DMI
What are some lab tests that can be run on equine patients? What would they indicate in terms of diet?
Most nutrients cannot be adequately determined with lab
tests/blood tests
• Albumin- can be reduced if protein status is poor, acute inflammation
or liver failure
• Albumin half life is long (19.4 days) therefore may not reflect acute
changes
• Decreased creatinine/BUN can indicate poor muscling and protein
intake
What is iron? Why do piglets need supplementation?
• Vital component of blood
• Aids absorption and transfer of oxygen in blood
• Piglet born with limited supplies. Milk contains no iron. Traditionally outdoor animals, obtain iron from the soil
- Must give supplemental iron to prevent anaemia and loss of growth
What is the difference between fiber and starch?
• BOTH ARE POLYSACCHARIDES
• ENDOGENOUS MAMMALIAN ENZYMES CANNOT BREAK 1,4 GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE (ONLY ALPHA) IN CELLULOSE OR
HEMICELLULOSE
• BACTERIAL FERMENTATION ALLOWS DIGESTION OF THESE COMPOUNDS IN THE FORESTOMACH OR HINDGUT
VIA FERMENTATION
• MAMMALIAN AND BACTERIAL ENZYMES CAN DIGEST STARCH. WITH BACTERIAL FERMENTATION THESE
STARCHES EVENTUALLY FORM VOLATILE FATTY ACIDS (VFA)
What are the clinical signs of rhabdomyolysis?
Muscle pain
• Swollen muscles
Stiff gait
Myoglobin in the urine may cause red-brown urine
Can progress to renal failure – tubular necrosis due to myoglobinuria
Potassium leakage from myocytes can cause cardiac arrythmia and
even cardiac arrest! (Hyperklemia)
What is the energy requirement dependent on?
The energy requirement depends on the duration of activity and the distance traveled
What is milk fever? Who is most affected by it?
Older cows : bone and gut less responsive to pth and calcitriol than heifers.
Peripartuant hypocalcemia occurs in 3 progressive stages, and can occur in both dairy and beef cattle.
What is the treatment of hypocalcemia? How can it be prevented?
- Calcium salts: usually in form of calcium borogluconate, iv slowly ( Rapid iv administration can result in cardiac arrest (stone heart syndrome). Therefore ascult while administering, if heartrate decreases below 60 bpm or you hear severe arrhythmia then stop administration for 20-30 seconds
- pad areas, likely to fall and can become injured
Prevention:
Method 1: 1 month prior to calving, decrease Ca2+ so they could gear up PTH and Vitamin D3 homeostasis early on (this will prevent them from being “blindsided” by drop in calcium). Increasing calcium in feed will have opposite effect and induce milk fever.
Method 2: Feed anionic salts for 2 weeks postpartum- inducing mild metabolic acidosis. This will aid calcium absorption in the gut, makes mineral more labile and improves renal activity of 1-alpha hydroxylase ( which activates vitamin D3)
Risks: Can cause bone mineral liability, expensive, and may not work.
What is one of the main expenses in pork/ pig production? What is the amino acid that is limiting in pig diets?
- Feed
• Lysine, is an essential amino acid that is expensive and is usually the
limiting amino acid in pig diet
What are energy feeds?
- grains/ concentrates
- oils and fats
What is magnesium an important cofactor for? What does it compete with?
- Cofactor for acetylcholinesterase, the ECF enzyme that cleaves Ach and terminates the stimulatory signal.
- Cofactor for release of PTH from parathyroid gland.
- Hypomagnesimia ( low mg2+ in ECF) may result in impaired PTH release.
- Competes with calcium ( both are 2+ cations) and inhibits its stimulatory activity.
What is calcitonin? What does it do?
- Released from thyroid C cells in response of excessively high Ca2+
- Promotes deposition of calcium, into bone
- Promotes calcium loss in kidneys
- Effect: decreases CA2+ in the ECF
What are the signs of vitamin A toxicity in cats? What diet has affected cats been reported to eat?
• Reported in cats fed large amounts of beef liver
– skeletal malformation
– Fetal malformation
– Liver failure
– Kidney failure
– Spontaneous bleeding
What is forage?
• FORAGE:
• GRASS: INCLUDES GRAIN CROPS, TURF GRASS, BAMBOO
• LEGUMES: ASSOCIATED BACTERIA ARE ABLE TO FIX NITROGEN (N2) INTO THE SOIL, THEN NH3 IS ABSORBED
INTO THE PLANT AND CAN BE USED AS A SUBSTRATE FOR PROTEIN AND OTHER NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS
What can grow in stagnant water? What can this lead to?
Stagnant water can grow blue green algae
Could leaad to liver necrosis, tremors, diarrhea and even death.
Hepatotoxicity
What are some examples of diseases seen in Dalmatians?
Dalmatian- urate urolithiasis
What questions should you ask a manufacturer when determining diets for patients?
- Do you employ a boarded nutritionist or a PhD nutritionist?
- Who formulates the diet?
- Do you perform AAFCO feeding trials?
- Do you analyze the finished product? If so, what does the analysis include?
- What product research has been conducted?
What is the definition of these terms?
- As Fed
- Dry Matter
- Crude Protein
- Crude fat
- As Fed- percentage of
nutrients including water
• Dry Matter- percentage of
nutrients without water
• Crude protein- chemical
analysis of the food which
measures the approximate
amount of protein in food by
measuring the nitrogen
content
• Crude Fat- based on the
solubility of lipids in non-
polar organic solvents (ether
extraction or acid hydrolysis)
What are types of analyses on pet food?
- Guaranteed analysis:
- Min is provided for crude protein, fat (more expensive, more important)
- Max is provided for fiber, moisture and sometimes ash (dont provide energy)
- Carbohydrate content is then calculated by subtracting these 5 measured nutrients from 100%
- Typical analysis:
- Actual average nutrient content over multiple analyses
- Averages are reported for crude protein, crude fat, moisture, fiber, ash
- Dry matter:
- similar to typical analysis- but without the moisture content
What is laminitis?
Laminitis results from disruption of blood flow to the laminae
These laminae structures within the foot secure the coffin bone to the hoof wall
Inflammation often permanently weakens the laminae and interferes with the
wall/bone bond
In severe cases, the bone and the hoof wall can separate
What can occur when there is excess phophorus or oxalates in certain grasses? Where is calcium absorbed?
- Can bind calcium and can have implications on skeletal health in growing foals and mares.
- Calcium is mostly absorbed in
the small intestines whereas
phosphorus is mostly absorbed
in the large intestines
What is Zinc a cofactor for? What can occur with Zinc excess? Zinc Deficiency?
• A cofactor to many enzymes including SOD therefore an antioxidant • Zinc excess is uncommon, but zinc can interfere with copper
absorption
• Zinc deficiency
• Parakeratosis in the lower limbs
• Decreased food intake
What is a horses normal diet composition?
~ 80 % energy
- 8-14.4 % protien
- 2-3 % minerals
~ 1% vitamins
What is the body fat percentage for ideal body condition for a dog?
BCS of 4 is 15-19% bodyfat
anything above or below is not ideal
What are idea traits for a GILT at service?
220-240 days old = 31-34 weeks
135-150 kg wt
P2 Fat depth = 18 mm
2nd or 3rd heat
Target is feeing to develop the gilt and the progeny
How can you prevent ketosis in ruminants?
- Prevention is key.
- Monitor high risk patients and make sure high risk are getting supportive measures for prevention.
- Cows feel fuller during pregnancy so they eat less and will also have increased nutritional needs due to lactation status, so making sure they are on a diet that is calorically and nutritionally dense for their needs are essential.
What makes fat so important? When is it most important? What happen if there is an excess of fat?
• Provides a concentrated source of energy
• Important especially in
submaximal exercise
• High fat:
– overloads the gut lymphatics – Increase bile secretion
– Slowed gastric emptying time
– Increased pancreatic
stimulation
What can occur with vitamin K deficiency? What can occur with vitamin K excess?
• Deficiency
– Increased Clotting Time
– Hemorrhage
– All fish diet fed to cats need to be supplemented
with vitamin K
• Excess
– No known complications
When could you see mold and spoilage with haylage/ silage? What are the concerns with certain molds? What bacteria can grow in spoiled pockets? What can they cause?
- MOLD AND SPOILAGE TYPICALLY OCCUR IN AREAS WHERE THE PACKING IS LESS TIGHT OR WHERE AIR/RAIN OR GROUNDWATER CAN ENTER
- CERTAIN MOLDS CAN DEVELOP MYCOTOXINS THAT CAN BE DETERMINANTAL TO ANIMALS
- SOME BACTERIA SUCH AS LISTERIA CAN GROW IN SPOILED POCKETS AND CAUSE ENCEPHALITIS AND ABORTION IN LIVESTOCK
Which is higher in these different components of feed? What does it provide to the diet?
- Soy bean meal
- Soy bean hulls
- Wheat bran
- Animal Fat
- Vegetable oil
- Soy bean meal: protein source- higher digestible energy vs. net energy
- Soy bean hulls: fiber - higher digestible energy vs. net energy.
- Wheat bran: fiber- higher digestible energy vs. net energy. (more)
- Animal Fat : fat - higher net energy vs. digestible energy.
- Vegetable oil: fat - higher net energy vs. digestible energy.
Fat digestion is more efficient with more heat conservation but the other products are required to have a balanced diet.
How do feeds affect blood glucose and insulin in the horse?
Glycemic index: the plasma/blood glucose response to ingestion of a measured
amount of feed
The higher glycemic response typically produces a higher insulin response
Corn, oat, and barley all result in increase in blood glucose (BG) within 15 minutes
- The glycemic index of hull-less oats is higher with a more rapid increase in BG (higher digestibility)
Barley is of low glycemic index
Pelleting and extrusion tend to reduce the glycemic index
Grass hay has a higher index than legume hay
What happens when energy requirements are not met? What happens when intake is low? When glucose is low?
- more impactful when this occurs during lactation
- Energy requirements > energy intake = negative energy balance
• When intake is low, insulin is decreased and glucagon is increased ( increases gluconeogenesis), When glucose is in short supply, fats/ triglycerides are used as substitutes since lipids are “energy dense”
What occurs with the formation of ketone bodies?
- Ketones can be normal in moderate amounts when energy requirements are high (i.e lactation, ewes or does with large brood in last trimester)
- Ketones remove unstable Acetyl CoA.
- Ketones can be found and be normal, but excessive ketones can cause ketosis/ ketoacidosis.
- Presentations of neurological signs, decreased appetite, pica, ect.
- Can occur in severe chronic negative energy balance.
What is the limiting amino acid in swine diets?
Lysine is the limiting amino acid in most swine diets
How much colostrum must a piglet consume for adequate immunity? What percentage of piglets have not received colostrum? What occurs with smaller piglets and the amount of colostrum received?
200 ml
72%
For every 100 g decrease in birth weight there is a reduction of 30 grams of colostrum intake ( too weak to get to teat, bullied out of way)
What can occur when you have high phosphorus and low calcium? What about too high of phosphorus? Where does phosphorus excretion occur?
• Can compete with calcium and reduce bone absorption. Low Ca++ and High Phosphorus in blood triggers chronically elevated PTH.
Can cause bone resorption and condition called rubber jaw.
• Ruminants on high grain diets may develop phosphate based urinary calculi if urine becomes highly concentrated ( i.e struvite ( magnesium ammonium phosphate). Disease termed urolithiasis.
In ruminants: Phosphorus is usually excreted in the saliva and gi tract.
- Saliva : supplies rumen bacteria with P source for ATP
- Allows phosphorus recycling from blood into gut, minimizing urinary losses.
What are the essential amino acids?
Essential amino acids: arginine,
histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine,
threonine, tryptophan, valine, taurine
What can be seen in patients who are near soil with high molybdenum content?
It inteferes with copper absorption and can cause copper deficiency
What is important about the calcium content of grass hay and legume hay and how does it affect lactating mares?
• Grass hay is lower in calcium so may need to supplement
• Legume hay has enough calcium, but may need to supplement
phosphorus
What is the time frame in commercial facilities for each of the following:
- Weaning
- Gestation
- Lactation
- Growing / Finishing
- Weaning: 4+ 4 weeks ( 8 total)
- Gestation: 114 days
- Lactation: 21-28 days
- Growing / Finishing : 10-12 weeks
What physiologic changes occur with aging?
- Skin and coat
- Behavior/ cognition
- Musculoskeletal system
- Senses and metabolic flexibility
- Digestive function Immune function
What is the issue with measuring via cup for pet food? What is the best recommendation?
• Inaccuracy was noted in the amount of food measured out (ranging from an 18% under‐estimate to an 80% over‐estimate)
- USE A FOOD SCALE
What can prevent severe signs of hyperammonaemia? What does it not do?
Citrullin supplementation may prevent the severe signs of hyperammonaemia but do not sustain normal growth
What is the recommended ratio of Ca to phosphorus in mature horses? What impacts absorption of the other more?
- Excess phosphorus impacts calcium absorption more than the other way around
- The recommended ratio (Ca:P) is 1:1 -5:1 in the mature horse
What is an indication of severe muscle loss?
The ability to feel the entire transverse process of the spine = poor muscling
What do dogs running for more than 30 minutes need?
Much more protein in their diet.
Protein supports muscle mass.
What are the objectives on commercial production for sows/gilt? Piglet/weaning?Growing/ finishing pig? Will they all occur in the same location?
Sow/ GILT: Maximum # of piglets/ year
Piglet/ Weaning: Minimize mortality and optimize health
Growing-finishing pigs- maximum growth
How much water does suckling sows need? What should the flow rate of drinkers be? What are the differences in water needs from dry fed sows and wet fed sows?
- Sows require +20 litres per day
- Drinkers should have flow rate of 2 litres per minute
- Dry fed sows: give 4-5 litres via tap or hose morning and evening
- Wet fed sows: give mix with 3-3.5 litres water per kg feed, plus additional water in first 7-10 days lactation
Can cats eat dog food exclusively?
No but dogs can eat cat food.
What are sources of the following for swine:
- Energy (Carbohydrates/ Fats)
- Proteins (Lys, met)
- Minerals/vitamins
- Energy (Carbohydrates/ Fats): cereals, oils, fats
- Proteins (Lys, met) - soy, linseed, pea, faba
- Minerals/vitamins: ??????
What is important about the pH of where the haylage/ silage is stored?
Low pH prevents growth of mold and bacteria.
What is pregnancy toxemia? What is the gestation period of small ruminants? What is the correlation between number of embryos and metabolic strain?
- Another disease associated with chronic negative energy balance. Occurs in does and ewes in pregnancies with multiple offspring. Gestation in small ruminants last 142-150 days. Most embryonic development and growth takes place in the last trimester.
More embryos -> Higher metabolic strain
What can affect the hair color in cats?
• Tyrosine is a precursor for melanin.
Lighter brown cats may be tyrosine levels lacking, supplementation should increase coat color.
• The requirement for growth is much lower than the
requirement for dark hair color
What can be the outcome a sporting dog without enough protein?
High protein is required for the
prevention of ‘sports anemia
What can occur of feeding and exercise occur too close together? How can this be prevented ( or fixed)?
• Feeding + activity = GDV?
– Most army dogs have had prophylactic gastropexy
What is 2 things should you look at to evaluate the condition of the patient during physical exam?
- BCS
- MCS OR MMI
Why is thiamin important?
- Thiamin is important for the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl COA.
- Thiamin deficiency can cause type B lactic acidosis since pyruvate cannot be converted into acetyl COA.
Thiamin is also a cofactor for enzyme transketolase. This is a way thiamin levels are monitored, by looking at these levels. - Thiamin deficiency can also cause neurologic clinical signs. Since neurologic tissues have high energy requirements, so thiamin deficiency can result in neurologic signs.
What is a veterinary therapeutic diet? What is important to note about these diets?
- Veterinary therapeutic diets may have an indication to be fed intermittently as they may be technically not complete and balanced
• Veterinary diets have specific indications and are typically named so that most owners would not immediately know what the indication is
• These diets require a prescription
• There are diets for multiple indications
• Each company would have nutritional information in a product guide that would provide caloric density, caloric distribution (pro/fat/CHO),
and nutrient (g) /1000 kcal
What is the term for poor energy intake? What can it lead to?
Starvation = poor energy intake
Can lead to:
- Fat catabolism
- Catbohydrate store depletion
- Once fat is depleted- protien catabolism.
Why do dogs that engage in short duration supra-maximal exercise not need as much protein?
– Glycogen stores do not get depleted and protein is not required to rebuild it
What is the water soluble vitamins? Which is the most important to remember? Why?
Vitamin B
1. Thiamin
2. Riboflavin
3. Niacin
4. Pyridoxine
5. Panthothenic Acid
6. Biotin
7. Folic Acid
8. Cobalamin
9. Choline
(and vitamin C)
Thiamin is most important, we see recalls due to thiamine deficiency.
What are clinical signs of iron deficiency?
Anemia
Clinical Signs:
• Pale white colour
• Breathlessness
• Jaundice
• Scour (white) at about 3 weeks old
• Reduction in growth rate = lower weaning weigh
How can you determine body weight of horses?
- Bodyweight can be measured on walk-in scales or estimated:
- Lb Bodyweight= Heart girth (in)2 X Length (in) /330
- Kg Bodyweight= Heart girth (cm)2 X Length (cm)/11800
- Heart girth – measured behind elbows at expiration
- Length- point of the shoulder to tuber ischii
What can be helpful to give to starved horses in terms of diet quality and composition?
• Could be helpful to provide a higher
protein diet (similar to growth)
unless contraindicated by
concurrent disease
• Make sure diet provides vitamins
and minerals as needed
• Watch for food aversion, difficulty in
prehension or chewing
Is tyrosine an essential amino acid?
Tyrosine is not an essential amino acid in cats
(although there is a requirement for phenylalanine+
tyrosine)
What percentage of extracellular calcium in the blood is ionized? When is more calcium bound to albumin? What will this cause? Can these cause any clinical signs? In ruminants, what do you normally see concurrently and why?
- More calcium bound to albumin during alkalosis, resulting in slightly lower Ca++ in the blood and ECF
- Alkalosis can cause signs of hypocalcemia.
- In ruminants normally occurs with diseases that impair abomasal emptying since hcl is trapped in abomasum and forestomachs, metabolic alkalosis.
What are other things that can decrease magnesium absorption from diet?
- GI tract absorption of Magnesium is generally inefficient.
- High nitrogen (protein) as well as high dietary K+ will reduce magnesium absorption from the rumen since their will be a change in the electrical gradient.
- Rapidly growing grasses have a lot of nitrogen and potassium.
What does magnesium metabolism adhere to? How likely is dietary deficiency reported? What else can cause deficiency?
- Closely adheres to calcium and phosphorus.
- Dietary deficiency is uncommon, high P may reduce absorption as well as hypomagnesemic tetany.
What is Equine Metabolic Syndrome? What horses are most affected? What is your hallmark sign?
Equine metabolic syndrome (EMS) is a characteristic collection of clinical signs and clinicopathologic changes in equids that places them at high risk for developing laminitis
Insulin dysregulation, the abnormal insulin response to oral or IV glucose is the hallmark of EMS
Most affected horses are obese, but insulin dysregulation can occur in thinner
animals as well
increased regional adiposity in the neck and tailhead regions is typical
Hallmark sign: Hyperinsulinemia with normal blood glucose concentrations
(insulin resistance) is the hallmark finding.
What are the top 10 reasons for toy dogs to visit the veterinarian?
- Vaccination / deworming
- Health check
- Skin & coat
- Ear / Eye / Nose
- Dental 6.Vomiting Diarrhea
- Illness recheck
- Lethargic
- Lameness
- Behaviour
- Less commonly overweight
What are the nutritional guidelines for the senior pet?
- There are no specified guidelines for senior pets
- Commercial senior diets vary in their nutritional content
- It is important to feed for the life stage
What are the effects of high dietary calcium in great dane puppies?
- Great dane puppies developed abnormal both growth when the diet contained 3.3% calcium compared with diets with 1.1 % calcium
- Miniature poodle puppies tolerated calcium intake
between 0.33% and 3.3%
What is a horses daily water requirement?
Variable due to age, activity, physiologic state, temp
Typically = kcal requirement.
0.3-0.8 gallons/100 lb/ day or 25-70 ml/kg/day
What are water needs of cats?
- Cats are thought to originate from the African Wild
Cat, a desert dweller
• Cats tend to drink less than dogs
What is important about magnesium in relation to its regulation? What are sources of magnesium in diets?
- Doesnt have specific hormones to regulate it
- Doesnt mobilize bone mineral release.
Mg absorption from gi tract is only regulatory mechanism for ECF. Animal must ingest from diet.
Magnesium Sources:
- Variety of plants, (legumes better than grasses) and nuts.
- Animal tissues and liver are sources of mg ( for carnivores)
Is taurine an essential amino acid? What is the function of taurine? What is the conditional situation taurine is essential to dogs?
• Taurine is not considered essential in mammals with
the exceptions of cats and human infants
• It is considered conditionally essential in dogs
• Taurine is conjugated to bile acids, similar to glycine
– Dogs and cats use taurine rather than glycine; whereas other mammals may use either
In addition, taurine acts as an antioxidant and
deficiency results in increased oxidative
damage
– Taurine deficiencies leading to DCM have been described in Newfoundlands and in cocker
spaniels
What is the treatment of colic? what are the different types of colic? What can you do to prevent colic?
Treatment:
Soak food- divide to 3-4 meals
Provide soluble fiber- beet pulp
Wheat bran
Psyllium
Linseed
Provide salt blocks to avoid pica
Flunixin meglumine- reduces the cellular production of prostaglandins but
can also mask signs
Gas colic- in large intestines, can palpate
The result of excessive fermentation and gas production
Can be the result of high energy feeds such as grain, lush forage
Sand colic-
Large intestines- hard to palpate
Suspect according to environment and sand in feces
Prevention:
Access to water
Dental health
Avoid excess grain/high energy forage
Slow transition to diet change
Avoid feeding when horses are ‘hot’ after exercise
Encourage owners to become educated on fed quality, dental care,
vital signs and recognizing early signs of distress
What are protien requirements of horses dependent on?
- age
- Physiological state
- Activity
- Feed intake
- Digestibility
What facilitates calcium absorption? What dietary factors can affect calcium absorption?
Activated Vitamin D, and Parathyroid Hormone.
- Phosphorus and magnesium content
- High dietary zinc (many times due to formulation error)
- Oxalates (can be posionous)
What are the types of hay? Is hay in a bale of a single species?
• HAY CAN BE COMPRISED OF A SINGLE SPECIES, OR A COMBINATION OF SEVERAL SPECIES • CAN BE FROM FORAGE THAT IS NATIVE OR CULTIVATED • MOST HAYS ARE EITHER GRASSES (TIMOTHY GRASS HAY, ORCHARD GRASS HAY), OR LEGUME HAY (ALFALFA HAY)
What is the difference of energy requirements in donkeys than in horses? What occur if donkeys are fed with horses?
• Energy requirements are also lower than horses (50-70% of a similar size
horse)
• Can become obese and develop hyperlipidemia, laminitis and other metabolic
complications if fed with horses
What are AAFCO protocols?
• Each life stage has its own protocol. Life stages are the same for both dogs and cats
and are defined as:
• Adult Maintenance
• Growth
• Gestation/ Lactation
• All Life Stages
• A minimum of eight healthy adult dogs at least one year of age and of optimal body weight
• Test is 26 weeks at least
• BW, food intake, Hemoglobin, packed cell volume, serum alkaline phosphatase and
serum albumin shall be measured and recorded at the end of the test
What is the increase in protien requirements in the lactating horse? How can you balance that diet, and how much grain protien is needed to give the correct amount of protien?
- Protein requirements increase to 13%
- Can be balanced with a combination of legume hay or legume grass
- If legume hay is provided, grain protein can be 12%
- If grass hay is provided, grain protein needs to be at least 16%
What is the process of gluconeogenesis in ruminants?
• Non esterfied Fatty acids sent to liver to become Triglycerides ( which then becomes VLDL), Ketone bodies ( exportable energy source used by extra hepatic tissues) or for fuel for hepatic metabolism to make energy.
What occurs with protien deficiency?
Usually accompanied by overall
energy malnutrition
• Weight loss
• Poor skin/hair quality
• Poor growth
• Decreased lactation (mares) • Poor performance
• Biochemistry:
• Low BUN
• Low albumin/TP
• Edema possible
