Canine and Feline Nutrition Flashcards
How do you calculate RER (in kcal)?
Exponential equation:
(bodyweight in kg) 0.75 X 70
Linear equation for animals 5-95 pounds:
30 (bodyweight in kg) + 70
what are the different energy requirement terms? What do they mean?
• Resting Energy Requirements (RER)
– Energy required at maintenance state,
moderate activity
• Daily Energy Requirements (DER)
– Includes: work, gestation, lactation and
growth
– Normal, fed, at rest – Digestion – Metabolism
• Metabolic Energy Requirements (MER)
5 year old MC Labrador 50 lbs BCS of 4 out of 9, normal muscle mass. Calculate Hanks RER? What Life stage factor would you use? What is the MER for Hank?
RER: 751
Life stage: Can use neutered factor or obese prone.
Neutered: 1165 kcal/ day
Obese prone: 874 kcal per day
What is 2 things should you look at to evaluate the condition of the patient during physical exam?
- BCS
- MCS OR MMI
What is the body fat percentage for ideal body condition for a dog?
BCS of 4 is 15-19% bodyfat
anything above or below is not ideal
What is an indication of severe muscle loss?
The ability to feel the entire transverse process of the spine = poor muscling
What is the 5th vital assessment?
Diet evaluation
(Ask about gastro fxn, previous/ ongoing medical condition, medication, unconventional diet, snacks/treats/ table food, inappropriate feeding management, inadequate housing.
What are the goals of young animals nutritionally?
– Feeding for optimal growth – Avoid over feeding- obesity, orthopedic disease
What are the goals of adult animals nutritionally?
– Appropriate energy and nutrients
What are the goals of geriatric animals nutritionally?
– Appropriate energy and nutrients
– Screen for organ system function
What is important does it take for dogs of different sizes to reach adult size?
Appears breed specific
– Small dogs reach adult body size earlier
(under 1 year to 1.5 years) – Large and giant dogs may continue
skeletal development for over two years
What are age related factors in geriatric factors that decrease their ability to adapt? What should you do to make sure you are providing optimal nutrition?
• Changes in body composition and metabolic rates • Decreased ability to adapt to:
– Excess – Deficiency – Nutrient Quality – Intake
• Special Senses
• Evaluate individually
What physiologic changes occur with aging?
- Skin and coat
- Behavior/ cognition
- Musculoskeletal system
- Senses and metabolic flexibility
- Digestive function Immune function
What pathologic changes occur with aging?
- Cardiac disease
- Endocrinopathies
- Renal disease
- Neoplastic disease
- Osteoarthritis
- GI disease
- Dental disease
What is a senior dog?
Completed 75-80% of life expectancy
- Small dog 11.5 yr; medium 10 yr; large 9 yr; giant 7.5 yr
Based on Goldstone and Allen and Roudebusch.
This is controversial !!
What are the nutritional guidelines for the senior pet?
- There are no specified guidelines for senior pets
- Commercial senior diets vary in their nutritional content
- It is important to feed for the life stage
What are the breed related disease factors?
Breed associated diseases
– Orthopedic
– Obesity
– Urinary stones
– Food Hypersensitivity
What are the top 10 reasons for toy dogs to visit the veterinarian?
- Vaccination / deworming
- Health check
- Skin & coat
- Ear / Eye / Nose
- Dental 6.Vomiting Diarrhea
- Illness recheck
- Lethargic
- Lameness
- Behaviour
- Less commonly overweight
What are some examples of diseases seen in Dalmatians?
Dalmatian- urate urolithiasis
What are some examples of diseases seen in Miniature Schnauzer?
Miniature Schnauzer- calcium oxalate urolithaisis, hyperlipidemia, pancreatitis
What are some examples of diseases seen in Labrador?
Labrador- orthopedic disease, copper storage disease
What are some examples of diseases seen in pomeranians?
Pomeranian- picky eater, dental disease
What are important aspects of feeding management to consider?
- Frequency
- Timing
- Location
- Method
What environmental factors are important to consider when feeding?
• Quality of the pet’s surroundings
– Husbandry
– Multiple Pets
– Environmental Stimulation
What are the physical signs of malnutrition? What should you do if you suspect malnutrition? What are the levels of risk of nutrition related problems?
- Weight loss and Muscle loss
- Determine adequacy of the current diet for the physiological status of the animal
• Estimate risk of nutrition related problem
– High
– Moderate
– Low
What questions should you ask a manufacturer when determining diets for patients?
- Do you employ a boarded nutritionist or a PhD nutritionist?
- Who formulates the diet?
- Do you perform AAFCO feeding trials?
- Do you analyze the finished product? If so, what does the analysis include?
- What product research has been conducted?
What is bilious vomiting syndrome?
Dogs will have vomiting in the morning, and were fed in the afternoon/ evening and then are fasted until the morning. There is an increase secretion of bile acids and that irritates their GI tract and can cause the vomiting.
What else is important when looking at a food label on pet food?
Don’t get hung up on the ingredient
list!
• In most cases, nutrients are more important than ingredients
• The ingredient list provides
ingredients in the order of their
weight before processing
• Can be manipulated to make the listlook more appealing
– For example: Don’t like corn to be high on your list? Use some corn and some corn gluten meal – Just like that- its lower on the list!
What can cause calcium deficiencies in dogs?
– secondary hyperparathyroidism, stimulates
the secretion of parathyroid hormone
– Increased production of calcitriol (active vitamin D)
– PTH + Calcitriol= bone resorption
• Skeletal fractures
What can be caused by calcium excess?
Calcium Excess
– Developmental skeletal abnormalities
(puppies)
What is important to note about hypercalcemia in puppies? At what age can puppies begin to regulate their calcium levels?
Puppies of different breeds have different
sensitivities to calcium excess • Until the age of 6 months, puppies do not regulate
calcium absorption
What occurs in hypercalcemia?
• Hypercalcemia causes increased production of calcitonin (important for bone deposition) and reduced PTH-> slowed bone resorption
• Although plasma Ca++ returns to normal, calcitonin
will remain high
• Paradoxically, this may result in hypocalcemia (due to increased bone deposition) ->
increase in PTH -> increased bone resorption
What occurs when both PTH and Calcitonin is high?
When both PTH and calcitonin are high, they have
competing effects on the bone
- PTH stimulates
resorption while calcitonin stimulates bone
remodeling
• The result is abnormal bone growth
What are the effects of high dietary calcium in great dane puppies?
- Great dane puppies developed abnormal both growth when the diet contained 3.3% calcium compared with diets with 1.1 % calcium
- Miniature poodle puppies tolerated calcium intake
between 0.33% and 3.3%
What occurs in adult dogs when fed high dietary calcium? What was the result of the study?
Adult dogs are capable of regulating calcium balance, without adverse effects on health when fed a high calcium diet. Calcium excretion was proportional to calcium intake in adult dogs.
What is zinc deficiency? What can it cause in puppies? Northern breeds?
Zinc deficiency:
Puppies- poor growth, skin lesions
Northern breeds- genetic defect resulting in interference with zinc absorption, dermal lesions
What can occur in Vitamin A deficiency?
Deficiency
– Impaired Growth
– Reproductive Failure
– Dermatoses
– Mucus membranes damage
– Immune deficiency
What can occur with excessive vitamin A?
Excess
– Skeletal Abnormalities (calcification around joint as example)
– Hyperesthesia (very sensitive to touch and sensation)
– Mucus membrane damage
What is the function of vitamin D? What do they not have that changes their vitamin D absorption? What must they do instead?
• Function: Regulate Calcium and Phosphorus Metabolism
- Low Concentrations of 7- dehydrocholesterol in skin so they cannot receive the Vitamin D from the sun.
- They must get it from their food.
What are sources of Vitamin D?
• Sources
– Liver
– Fish- Cod Liver Oil
– Egg Yolk
– (Sunlight)
– Most Pet Foods Add Cholecalciferol
What can be seen clinically due to vitamin D deficiency? Excess?
Deficiency
Clinical signs:
– Rickets (vit D deficiency)
– Osteomalacia (decrease bone mineralization, low absorption of calcium) (non fusion of growth plates- need vitamin D for fusion)
– Nutritional Secondary Hyperparathyroidism (Ca
deficiency) ( fusion of growthplates)
• Excess (young and old animals)
Vitamin D has narrow safety margin.
– Hypercalcemia
– Bone Resorption
– Soft Tissue Calcification
What is the function of vitamin E? What is oxidation of fat?
Antioxidant
– Prevents oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids by
donating electrons to the free radicals
- Oxidation of Fat = Rancid Fat and Decreased Nutritional Value
What relationship does vitamin E have with vitamin A? PUFA? Selenium?
• Interrelationship
– Vitamin A
• Vit E prevents oxidation of Vit A
– Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA)
• Requirement for Vit E depends on the amount of PUFA’s in the diet .
– Selenium
• work together to prevent oxidation of cell membrane
What are sources of vitamin E? What can happen to Vitamin E in pet foods if stored improperly?
• Sources
– Wheat Germ
– Corn Oil
– Soybean Oil
- The Vitamin E in pet foods can be oxidized if not stored properly
What can occur in vitamin E deficiency? What can occur in vitamin E excess?
• Deficiency
– Reproductive failure
– Pansteatitis in cats
• Fed diet high in PUFA’s with insufficient Vit E (Tuna Diet) ( inflammation in their own fat, and cause pain. This is due to oxidative damage)
• Excess
– Possible increase need for Vit A and Vit D
What is Vitamin K important for? What factors is it required for?
Function • Clotting Cascade
– Required for synthesis of:
• prothrombin (Factor II)
• Factor VII
• Factor IX
• Factor X
What are sources of Vitamin K?
• Source
– Bacterial Synthesis in the Large Intestine
– Green Leafy Plants
– Liver
– Fish Meal
What can occur with vitamin K deficiency? What can occur with vitamin K excess?
• Deficiency
– Increased Clotting Time
– Hemorrhage
– All fish diet fed to cats need to be supplemented
with vitamin K
• Excess
– No known complications
What is the water soluble vitamins? Which is the most important to remember? Why?
Vitamin B
1. Thiamin
2. Riboflavin
3. Niacin
4. Pyridoxine
5. Panthothenic Acid
6. Biotin
7. Folic Acid
8. Cobalamin
9. Choline
(and vitamin C)
Thiamin is most important, we see recalls due to thiamine deficiency.
Why is thiamin important?
- Thiamin is important for the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl COA.
- Thiamin deficiency can cause type B lactic acidosis since pyruvate cannot be converted into acetyl COA.
Thiamin is also a cofactor for enzyme transketolase. This is a way thiamin levels are monitored, by looking at these levels. - Thiamin deficiency can also cause neurologic clinical signs. Since neurologic tissues have high energy requirements, so thiamin deficiency can result in neurologic signs.
What are the resting energy requirements for the following dogs:
Racing Greyhounds
Hunting dogs
Sled dogs
Racing Grey hounds: 2
Hunting dogs: 3.4
Sled dogs: 15
What is the energy requirement dependent on?
The energy requirement depends on the duration of activity and the distance traveled
How is energy used in running dogs?
• Initially- ATP (first 10 sec)
• Aerobic metabolism
– primarily carbohydrates and fat.
• Anaerobic metabolism- primarily carbohydrates
– Anaerobic metabolism is rapid, but only produces 2 ATP from each Glucose
– Lactic acid production
What can put racing or working animals at a disadvantage?
• Being overweight is a disadvantage in long distance physical activity.
- Can increase dehydration risk.
How are dogs muscles different from humans?
Dogs differ from human beings in that dogs are
adapted for long-distance running using the
aerobic metabolism of fat
What kind of muscle fibers do dogs have and how does that affect their running ability/ consequences of running? How are people different?
• Dog muscle does not contain the anaerobic,
easily fatigued type IIb fast twitch fibers which
are adapted to sprinting
– Type IIa fast twitch fibers rely more on anaerobic
than aerobic metabolism – Type I slow twitch fibers rely more on aerobic
than anaerobic metabolism
• As a result lactic acid production in exercising
dogs is low, unless they perform supramaximal
exercise
Why is training important in dogs?
Training increases stamina:
– Ability to perform high intensity exercise
– May not affect energy requirement
• Training increases heart size and stroke
volume -> the HR is reduced during exercise
• Training increases maximal oxygen utilization
• Reduced lactic acid production • Hence fat supplementation as a source of energy is less helpful for untrained dogs
What are the protein requirements of working / running dogs?
Protein requirement tied to energy
• Commercial diet protein digestibility
80-90%
What kind of diet is given to dogs who are running alot and quickly? What kind of diet is given to dogs who are running more distance paced running?
- ) High in carbohydrates
- ) Diet with more fat.
What are the essential amino acids?
Essential amino acids: arginine,
histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine,
threonine, tryptophan, valine, taurine
What is important to remember about cats and their protein requirements?
Cats have higher protein requirements than dogs.
What do dogs initially use as a source of glucose during submaximal energy?
When does gluconeogenesis increase?
Dogs initially use glycogen as a source of glucose during submaximal exercise
• Increase gluconeogenesis from protein after about 30 min (Wasserman et al. 1992)
What do dogs running for more than 30 minutes need?
Much more protein in their diet.
Protein supports muscle mass.
What can be the outcome a sporting dog without enough protein?
High protein is required for the
prevention of ‘sports anemia
What is important to make sure of when providing dogs with additional protein?
- Protein should be highly digestible and with a good amino acid profile
– Excess indigestible protein will ferment in the large colon and may lead to diarrhea
Why do dogs that engage in short duration supra-maximal exercise not need as much protein?
– Glycogen stores do not get depleted and protein is not required to rebuild it
What is fiber? What does soluble fiber do? What occurs when there is an excess of fiber?
- Fiber is indigestible carbohydrate
- Soluble fiber acts as a prebiotic and supports gut microbiota
Excess fiber-
– higher fecal volume
– Water loss in feces
What do carbohydrates provide to the animal? What is a good source of energy with high glycemic index? What is a potential issue with excess carbohydrates? What is the benefit of adequate carbohydrates?
• Carbohydrates provide energy
– Maltodextrin provide a source of energy with high glycemic index -> high uptake
– Replenishing muscle glycogen stores, less muscle breakdown
– Can lead to diarrhea in high
amounts
What is the importance of fiber and carbohydrates?
- Carbohydrates are calculated and not measured
- Crude fiber analysis- provides an indication for insoluble fiber
- No information on soluble fiber
- Total dietary fiber- soluble and insoluble fiber
What makes fat so important? When is it most important? What happen if there is an excess of fat?
• Provides a concentrated source of energy
• Important especially in
submaximal exercise
• High fat:
– overloads the gut lymphatics – Increase bile secretion
– Slowed gastric emptying time
– Increased pancreatic
stimulation
What are important considerations when creating a diet and feeding schedule?
- Separate feeding and exercise
• Provide highly absorbable
carbohydrates during prolonged exercise
What can occur of feeding and exercise occur too close together? How can this be prevented ( or fixed)?
• Feeding + activity = GDV?
– Most army dogs have had prophylactic gastropexy
What temperature is dangerous and considered overheating? What organs are most susceptible? What would increase the risk of overheating?
- Very high body
temperature (<104) can
be dangerous
• Intestines and kidneys (intestinal mucosa/ kidney damage)
are susceptible
• Dehydration increases
the risk for overheating
What can increase water loss in urine/ evaporation?
Exercise
What is the effect of panting? Why do dogs pant? What can occur if a dog becomes dehydrated?
- Dogs don’t sweat (much)
- Most water loss is through evaporation
- Not much sodium is lost in drool saliva
- Dehydration may quickly lead to plasma hyperosmolality
- Added electrolytes to water -> hyperosmolality is not corrected
Will sports drinks be helpful ?
Do antioxidants help working dogs? Creatine? BCAA?
Sports drinks: Not really
Antioxidants: Unknown
Creatine: No proven benefit
BCAA: Probably enough, not enough to help
What are water needs of cats?
- Cats are thought to originate from the African Wild
Cat, a desert dweller
• Cats tend to drink less than dogs
What is important to remember about cats ability to break down carbohydrates?
- Low activity of enzymes that break down CHO such as amylase
• Low adaptability of glucose transporters in the intestines (if meal is high in glucose, not all of it will be absorbed and remainder can cause fermentation, and water loss in intestines)
• Glucose is absorbed via Na dependent transmembrane
mechanism as well as passive diffusion
• Fructose is Na independent
What is excess glucose called in cats? What is true about cats ability to utilize glucose?
Excess glucose in cats: galactosemia and galactosuria
– Less efficient dietary sugar use
– Although they are constantly in gluconeogenesis
What are cats low in, in terms of glucose conversion? What has the same function and how is it different? What else are cats lacking when it comes to breaking down sugars?
Cats low in liver glucokinase- needed to convert
glucose to glucose-6- phosphate
– This system typically responds to a high sugar load
- Hexokinase has the same function but lower capacity (lower Vmax) to handle high glucose load
• Cats lack liver fructokinase- unable to utilize fructose
or sucrose
Do cats taste sweet flavor? What else is important for cats diets?
• Cats don’t have a taste receptor for sweet flavor • Cats need a higher protein and fat diet than dogs
What do cats utilize amino acids for? What is the effect of cats being fed a limited protein diet?
• Amino acids are important to build protein and used as a source of energy and gluconeogenesis
• Amino acids are also utilized to form ketoacids as substrates for energy or glucose production
• Cats are unable to decrease the activity of transaminase/ deaminase enzymes when fed a
limited protein diet
• This is likely since cats are strict carnivores and adapted to high protein intake
What occurs with the amine groups in cats?
In cats – the amine groups removed are continuously metabolized to urea
What are the important intermediates for the urea cycle?
Arginine
Citruline
Arginosuccinate
Omithine
What is the issue with acute arginine deficiency? Why?
- Acute deficiency in most essential amino acids may lead to growth impairment and reduced food intake
- Arginine deletion may cause death in a single meal! This is because it allows for ammonia to build up in the system, and this can cause death
What is the cause of hyperammonaemia?
– Arginine is required in the urea cycle
– The enzymes the synthesize arginine
have low activity in cats
What can prevent severe signs of hyperammonaemia? What does it not do?
Citrullin supplementation may prevent the severe signs of hyperammonaemia but do not sustain normal growth
Is taurine an essential amino acid? What is the function of taurine? What is the conditional situation taurine is essential to dogs?
• Taurine is not considered essential in mammals with
the exceptions of cats and human infants
• It is considered conditionally essential in dogs
• Taurine is conjugated to bile acids, similar to glycine
– Dogs and cats use taurine rather than glycine; whereas other mammals may use either
In addition, taurine acts as an antioxidant and
deficiency results in increased oxidative
damage
– Taurine deficiencies leading to DCM have been described in Newfoundlands and in cocker
spaniels
What occurs with taurine deficiency? When was the first time it was recognized?
• Taurine deficiency in cats has been recognized
since 1975
• Taurine-deficiency dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) of cats represents a failure in contractility
– presumably due to abnormal calcium-ion balance in the myocardial cell
• Taurine deficiency impacts ability to regulate ionic
flux in photoreceptor cells in the retina
• When retinal taurine concentration is reduced
structure and function deteriorate progressively
Why do cats need taurine supplementation?
• Cats possess the entire enzymatic pathway to form
taurine from methionine/cysteine
• Two enzymes along the pathway have low activity
(cysteine dioxygenase and cysteinesulphinic acid
decarboxylase)
- Too slow and does not allow for enough taurine to be made.
• ‘Double Whammy’
– Low endogenous production of taurine
– Loss of taurine in the bile
Where else can taurine be lost? What influences recovery from the bile?
– Loss of taurine in the bile
- Cat foods cooked in cans which could make some proteins less digestible.
• Recovery of taurine from the bile depends on protein
digestibility
– High levels of indigestible protein promotes gut flora which degrades taurine
– Therefore taurine requirement depends on the
diet and the processing – canned diets require double the amount of taurine!
TRUE or FALSE: Cats are able to utilize carotenoids for synthesis of vitamin A
FALSE
Cats are unable to utilize carotenoids for the
synthesis of vitamin A
• They do not posses the enzyme which cleaves beta
carotene (ᵝᵝ Caortene 15,15’ Dioxygenase)
What is found in the plasma normally of cats (and dogs)? Who is less sensitive to vitamin A toxicity?
• In cats (and dogs) retinyl esters may be found in the
plasma normally
• Cats are less sensitive to vitamin A toxicity (although
not resistant)
What are the signs of vitamin A toxicity in cats? What diet has affected cats been reported to eat?
• Reported in cats fed large amounts of beef liver
– skeletal malformation
– Fetal malformation
– Liver failure
– Kidney failure
– Spontaneous bleeding
What can affect the hair color in cats?
• Tyrosine is a precursor for melanin.
Lighter brown cats may be tyrosine levels lacking, supplementation should increase coat color.
• The requirement for growth is much lower than the
requirement for dark hair color
Is tyrosine an essential amino acid?
Tyrosine is not an essential amino acid in cats
(although there is a requirement for phenylalanine+
tyrosine)
What are cats in terms of the type of animal they are?
Cats are obligate carnivores (however, this does not mean they cannot eat vegetables too!)
Can cats eat dog food exclusively?
No but dogs can eat cat food.
What should you base diets off of in both dogs and cats?
• Dogs and cats have unique nutritional requirements
that reflect their natural diets
• Dogs’ and cats’ diets should be adjusted as needed
for age, body condition, and lifestyle
