Exam # 1 Flashcards
What is a muscle condition score?
measurement of muscling to determine if patient is adequate or has some muscle atrophy/ sarcopenia
What can cause iron losses in the body?
Chronic blood loss
- Internal parasites
- External parasites
- Tumors, Ulcers.
What is a Nutrient?
a substance that provides nourishment
essential for growth and the maintenance of life
What are the clinical signs of primary hyperlipidemia in dogs?
Does your course of treatment matter depending on the type of lipoproteins.
◦ Clinical signs:
‣ Pancreatitis
‣ Dystrophic changes
‣ Insulin resistance
‣ Hepatobiliary disease (mucocele)
‣ Seizures.
◦ There is no difference in clinical signs or approach to therapy according to the type of lipoproteins.
What dog breeds have more of a predisposition to zinc deficiency?
Northern breeds ( Husky/ Malamute)
Why is selenium important in canine and feline nutrition?
- Needed for testosterone and sperm function, as well as normal thyroid function.
What is the role of calcitriol?
- Calcitriol promotes elevation of plasma calcium and phosphate levels, which are required for mineralization of bone.
- Calcitriol stimulates intestinal
calcium absorption throughout the
entire length of the intestine - With PTH, calcitriol promotes mobilization of calcium from bone
- Increases reabsorption of calcium in the distal tubules in the kidneys
What is “sports anemia”?
Sports anemia is a type of non-
regenerative anemia in athletes where
protein intake is insufficient
What is the avian water requirement?
AVIAN: 2 ML/KG/HR
OR 48 ML/KG/DAY
What is vitamin E? What allows it to integrate into the cellular membrane?
Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin but also has water solubility (amphipathic) which allows integration into cellular membranes
What are some clinical signs of an insulinoma?
Possible clinical signs:
• Lethargy
• pawing at the mouth
• weakness
• weight loss
• tremors/ seizures
• collapse
• abnormal behavior
In a cat on the 9 point BCS scale, what is the ideal body condition score?
5
Ionophores are toxic in which animals?
camelids and horses
Where can ruminants/ hindgut fermenters receive their cobalamin?
They can rely on their gastrointestinal microbiota for cobalamin if there is enough cobalt in diet.
What do vitamins differ in?
Solubility
What occurs in the stomach with non haem iron?
Some of the Fe3+ is reduced to Fe2+ in acid conditions of the stomach
What kind of fluids can be provided parentally to the patient
FLUIDS MAY BE ISOTONIC
(MOST COMMON),
HYPERTONIC OR
HYPOTONIC (SPECIFIC
INDICATIONS)
What can cause Heinz Body anemia?
Garlic/ Onion Ingestion
What is the normal specific gravity range for a goat?
1.015-1.045
What happens when minerals interact with each other?
Minerals may interact with each other, therefore the requirement for one mineral
may be impacted by the amounts of other minerals
- For example- divalent cation minerals may compete and decrease absorption of each
other (Zn2+; Ca2+; Mg2+ )
What is the Body condition score and what is it used for?
Body condition score (BCS): an indication of the energy status of an individual or a
group/herd
What can increase absorption of non haem iron?
Vitamin C
Why is energy required by animals?
– Basic metabolism
– Thermoregulation
– Activity
– Growth (young animals)
– Reproduction (females in reproduction)
What is failure to thrive?
Failure to thrive: a young (usually) animal that is in poor BCS and smaller size
What are the water soluble vitamins?
B vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9, B12, biotin, choline), vitamin C
What would be indicated in test results with urine that has a low USG?
RENAL DISEASE, PYOMETRA, HYPERCALCEMIA, LIVER DISEASE, CUSHING’S DISEASE, ADDISON’S DISEASE, HYPERTHYROIDISM
Name two marine sources of common dietary fatty acids
◦ Eicosapentaenoic acid(EPA; 20:5) n-3
◦ Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6) n-3
What product in excess can be detrimental to hindgut fermenters, why?
Excess simple sugars can be detrimental
in hindgut fermenters
• Starch and sugars not absorbed in the
small intestines reach the large intestines
• There it ferments and supports lactic
acid bacteria -> reduce pH
• This increases intestinal permeability and
is a risk for bacterial translocation,
enterotoxaemia, endotoxemia
• Can lead to gut stasis, laminitis in
horses, colic etc.
• In addition- excess sugars could lead
to obesity, increased blood insulin
and diabetes
What is released when an amino acid is deaminized?
• This releases ammonia
Give an example of essential fat synthesis
linoleic acid can be converted to arachidonic acid
◦ Cats have a slow enzymatic pathway for this, and so require arachidonic acid
How would a veterinarian diagnosis chylothorax?
includes physical exam findings (respiratory signs), radiographic changes and analysis of the fluid via thoracentesis
What does dietary protein provide?
Energy, essential amino acids, and nitrogen (to make non- essential amino acids)
Can you use/ is their benefit to using hydration drinks in veterinary medicine?
DEPENDS ON THE SPECIES
• HYDRATION DRINKS (W/ELECTROLYTES) ARE NOT USEFUL IN ANIMALS THAT
DO NOT SWEAT
Why would vitamin C increase absorption of haem iron?
acidic pH will cause the reduction of ferric (Fe3+) to ferrous (Fe2+) iron, which sees to be a requirement for the uptake of iron into mucosal cells.
What is the normal specific gravity range for a horse?
1.025-1.060
Which grains can cause rumen acidosis?
corn, wheat,
and barley
What do fat soluble vitamins require?
• These require dietary fat to be absorbed through the intestines
What is the function of lipoprotein lipase?
• Lipoprotein lipase breaks down the triglycerides and allows fat absorption in peripheral tissues
What other instance (in cats) may their be a deficiency of vitamin K?
Vitamin K deficiency has also been
described in cats fed a diet that contains
fish
- Mechanism is unclear
Therefore, fish diets in cats do require
vitamin K supplementation
What physiologic functions is protein important for?
- Enzyme activity/cellular function
- Barrier/skin function (deficient diet will cause skin to become brittle)
- Growth and reproduction
What occurs to blood volume with high sodium and increased plasma osmolarity?
• THIS INCREASES BLOOD VOLUME AS
FLUIDS SHIFTS EXTRA CELLULARLY • IT ALSO CONTRIBUTES TO THIRST AND
ACTIVATION OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS • CAN CAUSE INCREASED BLOOD
PRESSURE
What are probiotics? Prebiotics?
◦ Probiotics: beneficial microbial species
that can be provided to the organism and
support their health
◦ Prebiotics: compounds such as soluble
fibers that support a normal microbiome
What are the 3 types of vitamin K and where are they found?
Phylloquinone (K1) is present in
plants (leafy greens)
Menaquinone (K2) is produced by
the gut bacteria [this is why most
foods do not require added vitamin
K]
Menadione (K3) is a synthetic
supplement
What can the carbon skeleton of deaminized amino acids be used to make?
• The carbon skeleton can be used to make glucose or acetyl
CoA (fatty acid pathway)
What B vitamin is Pyridoxin?
B6
What is the equation for the metabolic energy requirements for the obese prone adult dog?
1.4X RER
What is the importance of linoleic acid?
◦ Immune function
◦ Skin barrier function
What is Isosthenuria?
USG of ~ 1.008- 1.012
TRUE OR FALSE: Visual inspection is not enough to make determination on BCS and you must palpate the patient.
TRUE
What is the structure of an amino acid?
Amino acids have an amine group and a carboxyl group
• The side chain determines which amino acid it is
What are the units of energy?
Calories and Joule
In anaerobic metabolism, what is pyruvate metabolized to? What is formed by this?
Lactic acid
- 2 ATPs
What ROS are produced by normal cellular respiration?
Superoxide radical
Hydrogen peroxide
Hydroxyl radical (OH-)
What is a body temperature that is concerning and potentially dangerous? What organs can be affected?
Body temperature > 104.
Intestines and kidneys are susceptible.
What is vitamin D? What are the roles of vitamin D?
Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that is involved in calcium, phosphorus and
bone metabolism.
Vitamin D has many additional roles and in fact has a nuclear vitamin D
receptor
- A transcription factor that regulates the expression of more than 900 genes
- Many animal species can use UVB light to synthesize vitamin D3
Why are some antibiotics lethal in rabbits?
This is because it changes their microbiome and the changes they are too sensitive too and cannot overcome.
What are signs of the patient being underweight in young animals?
- Higher susceptibility to disease
- Infectious > metabolic
- Poor response to medical treatments (unless nutritional status is corrected)
- Stunted growth, poor hair coat.
What causes fatty acid synthesis or lipogenesis? Why does this occur?
Acetyl CoA. Excess glucose and carbohydrates
Alpha linolenic acid can be transformed into?
In what species does this occur in?
◦ May be transformed to long chain omega-3 fatty acids in some species (not much in dogs and cats)
What is important to remember about taurine and cats?
Cats are very inefficient at converting methionine and cystine to taurine so we still have to supplement it in their diets.
Do carnivores easily convert Vitamin A? Why?
Carnivores have more trouble converting Vitamin A since they are eating herbivores who have already transferred it into Retinol
What are indicators of dehydration you can see on a physical exam?
- Change in body weight
- Mucus membrane character
- CRT
- Skin Turgor
- Heart Rate
- Respiratory Rate
- Pulse quality
- Urine output
- Blood pressure
What are poly unsaturated fatty acids? Where are they found?
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are a component in the phospholipids that
compose cell and organelle membranes
What are the two forms of MCTs?
Synthetic or purified
What determines cattle daily water requirements?
Age and production
In hindgut fermenters, where does bacterial fermentation occur?
In the cecum and colon
What is the normal specific gravity range for a pig?
1.010-1.050
What are the water soluable vitamins?
Vitamin B and C
What are the essential amino acids?
- Arginine
- Histidine
- Isoleucine
- Lysine
- Methionine
- Phenylalanine
- Threonine
- Tryptophan
- Valine
- Taurine (cats)
What are the three recognized types of diabetes mellitus?
• Type I (insulin-dependent): lack of insulin
production common form of DM in dogs
• Type II (noninsulin-dependent): peripheral
insulin resistance; found in cats (not dogs)
• Type III results from diabetogenic hormones
(progesterone, cortisol, epinephrine, growth
hormone, glucagon)
What are the consequences of iodine deficiency?
Iodine deficiency would result in an enlargement of the thyroid gland= goiter + decreased thyroid function. Can obstruct airways and be a life-threatening emergency!
What is important to remember about protein requirements of cats?
• Obligate carnivores such as the cat have
higher protein requirements than many
other species
• Cats cannot regulate deamination of
amino acids- even when protein intake
is low!
What is the treatment for a glucagonoma?
Treatment:
- Limited (surgery is treatment of choice)
- Risks for post-op pancreatitis
- SND: Skin lesions respond to supplementation with amino acids either enteral or parenteral
What forms urea?
Nitrogen and hydrogen
What are the clinical signs of Intestinal Lymphangiectasia?
‣ Chronic diarrhea
‣ Weight loss
‣ Protein loss (Protein losing enteropathy= PLE)
• Low albumin
• Ascites/pleural effusion
‣ Low calcium and vitamin D
• Seizures/tremors/ataxia/lethargy
• Face rubbing
Secondary hyperlipidemia affects what equine breeds?
◦ Ponies
◦ Miniature horses
◦ Donkeys
◦ Less common in standard adult horses
◦ Common in overweight ponies during negative energy balance
What is transported to the liver during fat digestion and absorption?
The remnants of chylomicrons.
What is primary reason for zinc deficiency?
Not enough zinc in diet.
What are DIP’s?
• This is called Degradable
intake protein (DIP) (usually
highly soluble protein) that is metabolized by microbial organisms.
What can BCS indicate?
Over-conditioned vs. Under-conditioned
Describe the chemical structure of MCTs
• These are triglycerides with a hydrocarbon tail chain of 6-12 unlike other fats carbons.
TRUE or FALSE: Many forages in the US are adequate at meeting copper requirements in live stock
FALSE:
Many forages in the US are inadequate to meet copper requirements in livestock
Copper supplementation is common in many feeds for production animals in the US, Australia, NZ
Where are VLDL and LDL formed? What happens after their formation?
• VLDL and LDL are formed in the liver from triglycerides and cholesterol and are transported from the liver to peripheral tissues LDL also returns to the liver and cleared from the blood stream
What are the metabolic costs?
digestion, gas, urine production
What is the treatment for chylothorax?
‣ Emergency: chest tube to relieve pressure on the lungs
‣ Surgical: such as thoracic duct ligation
‣ Non-surgical: low-fat diet may reduce the lipid content of the fluid and may help it reabsorb in the pleura
‣ Nutraceutical: Rutin is a medication that may stimulate macrophages and help break down the protein in the fluid.
What is the equation for the metabolic energy requirements for the obese prone adult cat?
1.2X RER
How is VLDL formed?
‣ assembled in the liver from triglycerides, cholesterol, and apolipoproteins
What are dietary protein sources?
- animal protein (meat, dairy, egg)
- Plant protein (legume, grain)
- Microbial protein
What is Iron used for ?
Essential for hemoglobin
What is the equation for the metabolic energy requirements for the intact adult dog?
1.8X RER
Where is taurine found in the body? Where are they not found?
- Taurine is present in high amounts in muscle protein and heart tissue
- It is not present in high amounts in plants commonly used as ingredients in pet food such as legumes and grains
How is protein broken down? and where are these products absorbed?
• Protein is broken down to smaller
peptides, amino acids
• Amino acids are absorbed via
transporter
What can destroy carotenoids?
Storage heat or direct sunlight.
What are fat soluble vitamins at risk for? Explain why.
• Since these are fat soluble and not water soluble, there is higher risk for excess
What is the risks of using too much NPN’s
Encephalitis/ Neuro signs
Never feed raw whole soybeans and urea together! Soybeans contain an enzyme called urease which breaks down urea into ammonia
What are sources of carbohydrates for omnivores/ carnivores?
Fruits and veggies in dog food.
What are some other indications of dehydration in diagnostic testing?
- PVC/TS
- Decreased size of Vena cava on Radiographs ** Severe dehydration
- USG
- Lactate
- BUN/Creat
- Osmolality
What occurs with amino acids when no additonal protien is needed?
When no additional protein is required, or when some essential amino acids to build protein are missing, amino acids can be deaminized
Are lipids polar or non-polar? Therefore they are?
Non-polar and are therefore water insoluble.
When is there water loss in the body?
Normal physiologic activities.
What are the clinical signs of diabetes mellitus?
Clinical signs:
• PU/PD
• Weight loss
• Polyphagia
• Lethargy
• Cataracts (dogs)
What percentage of haem iron is absorbed?
Depending on the individuals iron stores 15-35% of haem iron is absorbed.
What is a primary reason dogs have zinc deficiency?
Diets that are unbalanced or poor quality
Where is there an issue with storage and carotenoids being destroyed?
In developing countries if hay is stored improperly.
What is vitamin A important for?
Epithelial health
What clinical signs would you see in a dog with zinc deficiency? Is this permenant?
Hyperkeratosis around the eyes, elbows and joints
Usually resolves when they receive the adequate amount of zinc (Ie diet change or supplementation)
EPA and DHA are sourced from?
Marine source
What is the formula for water requirements for cats?
Cat: 70 x Bw(kg)^0.75
Alternate: 80xBW(kg)^0.75
What can cause a protein to have a low biological value?
Protein with low biological value may provide amino acids that will be deaminated and form ammonia and then urea
What is biological value? What impacts it?
- Biological value is the ratio between the amount of protein absorbed from the GI tract and the amount of protein that is retained in the body
- This may be impacted by the relative concentrations of amino acids to form a complete protein
What are symptoms of energy deficiency?
- Weight loss
• Loss of internal organ mass
• Decline in healing, immune function
• Shift to use of protein and fat stores for energy
What is the result of high sodium on plasma osmolarity?
It results in high plasma osmolarity.
What are common forms of malnutrition?
- Overall energy and protein malnutrition-
Marasmus
◦ Protein malnutrition-Kwashiorkor (energy is
sufficient)
◦ Any nutritional deficiency is malnutrition
What is the importance of arachidonic acid?
◦ Important for immune function and primarily for reproductive success in queens
Why are milk replacers often used instead of whole milk, and what is the risk/ downside when doing that?
- Milk replacers are often used instead of whole milk for monetary reasons (cheaper) ($)
• But… vegetable protein is unlike casein - Therefore it does not curd with rennet
- The excess protein reaches the lower intestines, and can cause diarrhea and overall increased costs on veterinary treatments
What are vitamins?
Vitamins are organic compounds that
have various functions
Some vitamins are essential in certain
species and not others
Vitamins differ in their solubility:
water soluble vs. fat soluble
Are carbohydrates essential nutrients for cats/dogs?
No
Prolonged hypoxia can lead to what issue? What can this effect? What should you evaluate?
Prolonged hypoxia-> lactic
acidosis
• Can have negative effects on
cardiac function, enzyme
function
• Can be very serious and life
threatening
• What to evaluate: blood
pressure, respiratory function,
oxygenation
What can cause zinc deficiency in livestock and pets?
Zinc depleted soils
Define macronutrients. They are required in?
Macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, and protiens.
Required in large amounts.
What is the most common reason for hyperlipidemia? Explain
Post prandial
- Increased chylomicrons causing hyperlipidemia
What is important about monitoring patients while they are receiving fluids?
• PATIENTS ON IV FLUIDS SHOULD
BE MONITORED TO ENSURE
THEIR REHYDRATION IS
PROGRESSING AT AN
ACCEPTABLE PACE.
What is diabetes mellitus? Is it common? What is a hallmark sign?
• Diabetes mellitus is characterized by
absolute or relative deficiency of insulin
• It has been reported in dogs and cats, and is
less common in horses and ruminants and
uncommon in rodents, lagomorphs and
birds
• The hallmark of DM is abnormal blood sugar
What is folate required for?
is required for nucleotide synthesis. Important for rapidly dividing
cells
What B vitamin is cobalamin?
B12
What occurs when oxygen is restored after anaerobic metabolism?
When oxygen is restored,
lactate can be metabolized
back to pyruvate in the
liver
What is the average heat of combustion for one gram of each of these: Lipid, Carbohydrate, Protein?
Lipid: 9.4 kcal/g
Carb: 4.2 Kcal/g
Protein: 5.65 kcal/g
Describe the stages of fat digestion:
◦ Stage 1: fat is emulsified with bile acids
‣ bile acids have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic domains
‣ the hydrophobic portions of bile acids interact with the lipid, and the hydrophilic domains remain at the surface
◦ Stage 2: hydrolysis of triglyceride into monoglyceride and free fatty acids by pancreatic lipase
‣ PL is water soluble, therefore stage 1 is required
◦ Stage 3: reformation of triglyceride molecules in the enterocytes in the small intestines
◦ Stage 4: the triglycerides are packaged with phospholipids, cholesterol, and protein (specifically, apoprotein B) to create chylomicrons
◦ Stage 5: chylomicrons are absorbed through the lymphatic vessels in the intestines which drain into the thoracic duct
◦ Stage 6: the thoracic duct is drained into the jugular vein
What do ionophores favor?
Ionophores favor propionate production
What are essential amino acids?
Essential amino acids are nutritionally required in amounts
the animal cannot synthesize on its own
What is the chain of events of cellular damage due to lipid peroxides?
- Phospholipid bilayers are excessively permeable which will disrupt normal cellular and organelle function. Excessive damage can lead to cellular death.
What will reactivate vitamin C?
Vitamin C, in turn, is reactivated by a selenium-containing enzyme, thioredoxin reductase
What is a balance diet?
a diet that provides all needed
nutrients in sufficient amounts and not in excess of
known safety limits
What is equation for resting energy requirements?
70 x BW(KG)^0.75
What is the function of ADH? What occurs in the absence of ADH? What is a condition that can cause Absence of ADH or resistance of ADH?
• ACTS TO INCREASE THE PERMEABILITY IN THE TUBULAR CELLS SO THAT
WATER IS ABSORBED AS THE INTERSTITIAL OSMOLALITY IS HIGHER THAN THE
FILTRATE • IN THE ABSENCE OF ADH (CENTRAL DIABETES INSIPIDUS) OR IF THE TUBULES
ARE RESISTANT TO ADH (NEPHROGENIC DI) URINE WILL BE DILUTE
What occurs with proteins of low digestibility?
Protein with low digestibility (regardless of its biological value) ferment in the large intestines and release ammonia that may be absorbed
• Excess low digestibility protein -> diarrhea, increased ammonia and urea
What factors can affect feed quality?
Graze:
Inadequate quantity
Overgrazing
Drought
Insufficient feed for physiological state or activity
Poor facilities- feeder space, cleanliness Extruded/pelleted/canned food:
Poor digestibility
Poor bioavailability
Unbalanced foods
What occurs in warfarin posioning and how would you treat it?
Vitamin K treatment is required in anticoagulant (warfarin) poisoning
- Inhibits vitamin K dependent clotting factors
What fatty acids are not attached to glycerol?
Free fatty acids or non-esterefied fatty acids (NFA)
What is one concern for a patient who is dehydrated?
Increased risk of overheating. Water loss in urine and evaporation is accelerated with exercise.
Why is supplementation of vitamin K not required in normal circumstances? What circumstances will you need supplementation? Why?
Since menaquinone is synthesized by the gastrointestinal microflora,
supplementation is only required in specific conditions
- Rodenticide toxicity (warfarin)
- Severe liver or intestinal disease
- In livestock- moldy sweet clover (contains dicumerol) ( fungal organisms can metabolize cumerin to dicumerol)
- These compounds interfere with the synthesis of the vitamin K dependent clotting
factors
What can occur with overhydration?
- OVERHYDRATION IS MOST OFTEN IATROGENIC
• CAUSED BY EXCESSIVE IV FLUID ADMINISTRATION
• CAN BE EVEN MORE DETRIMENTAL THAN DEHYDRATION
What increases the requirement for vitamin E? Why?
The requirement for vitamin E increases with dietary fat and PUFA
The requirement is also coupled to selenium (as it is needed to reduce the oxidized vitamin E)
More Polyunsaturated acids, more sites vulnerable to oxidation. So more vitamin E is needed to donate their hydrogen atom to neutralize the compounds that will oxidize.
Ionophores are safe in which animals?
Ionophores are safe in cattle, sheep, goats
What is the role of B vitamins and what is the consequence of thiamine deficiancy?
B vitamins are vital for cellular energy metabolism . The brain has a high demand for
energy. Cats with thiamin deficiency have
characteristic neurological signs (head drop) and cardiac signs. Diet change can resolve symptoms ( raw fish/shellfish diet can cause this)
Thiaminase can also be a problem in ruminants. Changes of rumen microflora as a result of diet change or intake pattern can cause an increase in growth of Bacillus thiaminolyticus This can cause neurological signs in ruminants:
aimless wondering, stargazing, blindness
ie. CCN: Cerebral-cortical necrosis /
polyencephalomalacia
What is zinc?
- Zinc is an essential mineral required
in the diet in micro amounts - Zinc is a cofactor for the enzyme
Super Oxide Dismutase (SOD) that is
important as it catalyzes the
dismutation of superoxide radicals
(O2−) to molecular oxygen (O2) and
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), providing
cellular defense against reactive
oxygen species
What combination can cause rumen acidosis?
Ionophores and Grain
List the types of fat soluble vitamins
A, D, E, K
What form is Vitamin A found in?
Vitamin A is found in the form of retinol (retinoic
acid) and beta carotene (provitamin A)
What is the absorption rate of non haem iron?
2-20%
Define hyperlipids/hyper lipoproteins/dyslipidemia
Increase in triglycerides and cholesterol in the blood.
What makes a lipoprotein smaller?
Density
What aids milk volume and where does it come from?
lactose aids milk volume, lactose comes from glucose.
In what situation can lipids be helpful (nutrition)?
Lipids could help animals with low appetite meet their nutritional requirements.
TRUE OR FALSE: Some minerals in excess can lead to adverse effects?
TRUE