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Integrated Physiology > Exam 1 (Chapter 6) > Flashcards

Exam 1 (Chapter 6) Flashcards

1
Q

what are the two types of basic physiological signals? what is the difference between them?

A

electrical: changes to a cell’s membrane potential
-depolarization & hyperpolarization

chemical: molecules secreted by cells into the ECF
-act as ligands that bind to receptor proteins
-majority of communication (NT, hormones)

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2
Q

what four things are under local communication?

A

Gap Junctions
Contact-Dependent Signaling (juxtacrine)
Paracrine Signals
Autocrine Signals

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3
Q

what are gap junctions?

A

allow adjacent cells to exchange components of their cytoplasm
-direct connection
-electrical signal
-connexion proteins (not always open)

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4
Q

what is contact-dependent signaling?

A

membrane molecules connect through a ligand & a receptor
-not directly connected
-uses CAM’s (cell adhesion molecules)

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5
Q

what are paracrine signals?

A

chemical signal released from the cell
-diffuses to adjacent cells

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6
Q

what are autocrine signals?

A

signal that secretes and acts on itself

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7
Q

what two things under long-distance communication?

A

endocrine glands
neurons

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8
Q

what do neurons secrete for signaling? (general term & descriptions of the three types)

A

neurocrines (general term)
-NT: synapse present, RAPID
-neuromodulator: SLOW
-neurohormone: chemical released into blood

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9
Q

what type of communication are cytokines? examples of cytokines? what do cytokines do to the body?

A

-BOTH local & long distance communication
-EX: interferons, interleukins, GFs, TNFs, chemokines
-initially: modulate immune system
-now: cell development & differentiation, immune response

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10
Q

what is the generic template for signal pathways?

A

1) signal molecule (the ligand)
2) receptor protein (where ligand binds)
3) intracellular signal molecules (activated pathway)
4) target proteins (modified)
5) response (gene regulation)

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11
Q

what are characteristics of lipophilic / hydrophobic signal molecules? (make sure to mention speed)

A

-lipid loving, water fearing
-can easily diffuse through
-intracellular receptors in cytoplasm or nucleus
-alters gene expression
-SLOW

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12
Q

what are characteristics of lipophobic / hydrophilic signal molecules? (make sure to mention speed)

A

-lipid fearing, water loving
-binds receptor on the surface / membrane of target cells that are embedded in the plasma membrane
-RAPID

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13
Q

what is the general template for signal transduction? how does it relate to signal pathways?

A

1) 1st messenger (ligand)
2) transducer (receptor)
3) 2nd messenger (intracellular signal molecule, amplifies signal)
4) target proteins (kinase, phosphatase)
5) response

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14
Q

what is a cascade?

A

waterfall effect in signal transduction

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15
Q

what is amplification?

A

one ligand generating many intracellular molecules in signal transduction
-increases the number of 2nd messengers
-EX: adenylyl cyclase, phospholipase C

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16
Q

what are the four classes of surface receptors?

A

receptor channels
G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs)
Receptor Enzymes
Integrin Receptors

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17
Q

what are receptor channels?

A

ligand binds receptor & opens / closes ion channel
-ions move w/ electrochemical gradient
-changes the membrane potential (depolarization & hyperpolarization)
-RAPID

EX: ACh opening Na+ channel causing a depolarization and the muscle contracts

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18
Q

what are GPCRs?

A

alters activity of enzymes and opens ion channels
-cytoplasmic tail of GPCR is linked to the G-protein

EX: cAMP pathway, phospholipase C pathway

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19
Q

what are the (7) steps of the cAMP pathway?

A

1) signal molecule binds GPCR (ligand)
2) G-protein activated
3) adenylyl cyclase activated (amplifier)
4) ATP converted to cAMP (2nd messenger)
5) protein kinase A activated (target)
6) target proteins phosphorylated
7) cell response

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20
Q

what are the steps of the phospholipase C pathway?

A

1) signal molecule binds GPCR (ligand)
2) G-protein activated
3) PLC activated (amplifier)
4) phospholipid molecule is used to make DAG & IP3
5a) DAG activates protein kinase C
5b) IP3 causes release of intracellular stores of Ca2+ in the ER

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21
Q

what are the two parts of receptor enzymes?

A

-receptor region
-enzymatic region

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22
Q

what is the function of the receptor region on receptor enzymes? which side are they on?

A

binds to a ligand
-extracellular side

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23
Q

what is the function of the enzymatic region on receptor enzymes? which side are they on? what are some examples?

A

catalyzes a rxn (phosphorylates!)
-cytoplasmic side
-cytokines fall into this receptor class!

EX: tyrosine kinase (insulin receptor), guanylyl kinases

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24
Q

what is the structure of integrin receptors?

A

they go across the entire membrane and connect to a cytoskeleton on the inside of the cell through an anchor protein
-interact with extracellular matrix (defines tissue types)

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25
Q

what are the functions of integrin receptors?

A

binds ligand and then activates intracellular enzymes & alters organization of cytoskeleton

-types of ligands: proteins of extracellular matrix, antibodies, clotting factors

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26
Q

what is special about calcium?

A

very versatile!
-can be a 2nd messenger, ligand, or have ICF and ECF properties
-enters ICF through gated channels (voltage, ligand, mechanical)
-released from ICF by 2nd messengers that are stored in the ER

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27
Q

what are some functions of calcium in the body?

A

-smooth muscle contraction -> calmodulin
-binding regulatory proteins -> cytoskeleton
-exocytosis of vesicles
-insulin release

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28
Q

when gases are signaling molecules, are they local or long distance? short or long acting?

A

local communication
short acting (short 1/2 life)

29
Q

what are the effects of nitric oxide (NO) as a signaling molecule?

A

-most common!!
-makes smooth muscles in blood vessel relax (vasodialation)
-acts as NT in the brain (Viagra)

30
Q

what are the effects of carbon monoxide (CO) as a signaling molecule?

A

-vasodilation (similar to NO)
-neural tissue

31
Q

what are the effects of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as a signaling molecule?

A

-relaxes blood vessel (vasodilation)
-cardio effects

32
Q

are lipids a type of paracrine or autocrine signal?

A

paracrine

33
Q

what are Eicasanoids? (what are they derived from, what are their two types)

A

-lipid soluble
-local acting signal
-derived from arachidonic acid
-TYPES: leukotrienes, prostanoids

34
Q

what is the synthesis pathway of the two eicasanoids?

A

1) PLA2
2) arachidonic acid
3a) lipogenase makes leukotrines
3b) COX 1&2 makes prostanoids

35
Q

what is a common function of leukotrines?

A

asthma & allergy

36
Q

what is a common function of prostanoids?

A

inflammation, pain, fever

37
Q

what type of drug is used to inhibit prostanoids?

A

NSAID’s (non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs)
-aspirin, ibuprofen
-targets COX enzyme

38
Q

what is an example of having multiple ligands for 1 receptor?

A

EPI & NE both can bind adrenergic receptors (alpha 1&2, beta 1&2)
-competition for same receptor

39
Q

what is an agonist?

A

structurally similar, binds & mimic primary ligand

40
Q

what is an antagonist?

A

binds & blocks primary ligand
-inhibits response

EX: Beta-blockers

41
Q

what is an example of having one ligand that can have multiple receptors?

A

-having different responses to the same signal
-dependent on the receptor (not the ligand!)

EX: epinephrine
-alpha1 receptor -> vessel constricts (intestinal vessel)
-beta2 receptor -> vessel dilates (skeletal vessel)

EX: ACh
-binding to both muscarinic & nicotinic receptors

42
Q

what is saturation?

A

process that occurs when no more of something can be absorbed, combined with, or added
-limited by the number of receptors present

43
Q

what is down-regulation?

A

-decrease in the number of receptors
-decrease response to a signal

44
Q

what is desensitization?

A

-chemically modifying the receptor (adding phosphate, methyl..)
-decrease response to a signal

45
Q

what is up-regulation?

A

-increase number of receptors
-increase response to a signal

46
Q

what are some ways you can decrease response to a signal?

A

-less signal (less secretion, destruction, uptake of signal)
-down-regulation
-desensitization

47
Q

what are some ways you can increase response to a signal?

A

-more signal
-up-regulation

48
Q

what are three ways you can terminate a signal?

A

-destruction of signal through enzymes
-uptake of signal by surrounding cells
-receptor down-regulation

49
Q

according to Cannon, what regulates the internal environment in a control system?

A

nervous system (autonomic NS)

50
Q

what is tonic control?

A

always some level of activity (make system work more/less)

EX: vessels are always open
-regulate relaxation or contraction w/ one regulator

51
Q

what is antagonistic control?

A

what turns the activity up / down

EX: HR is regulated by sympathetic & parasympathetic NS (can be both)
-opposing effects w/ two separate regulators

52
Q

what are central receptors?

A

receptors in the brain or close to the brain
-special senses: vision, sound, smell, taste (NOT TOUCH)

53
Q

what are peripheral receptors?

A

everything else that isn’t in the brain or a special sense

54
Q

what are the two types of reflex pathways? what are two differences?

A

Simple: 1 integrating center, FASTER

Complex: multiple integrating centers, SLOWER

55
Q

which reflex pathway, neural or endocrine, has a higher specificity? faster? longer duration?

A

higher specificity: neural
faster: neural
longer duration: endocrine

56
Q

which reflex pathway, neural or endocrine, only uses chemical signals?

A

endocrine

57
Q

how is the signal intensity of the neural reflex pathway increased?

A

increasing the frequency of the signal
-each signal is identical in strength, so you must adjust the frequency

58
Q

how is the signal intensity of endocrine reflex pathway increased?

A

increasing the amount of hormone secreted

59
Q

what is the sensor for the neural, neuroendocrine, and endocrine reflex pathways?

A

N: receptor
NE: receptor
E: itself

60
Q

what is the input signal for the neural, neuroendocrine, and endocrine reflex pathways?

A

N: afferent signal
NE: afferent signal
E: none

61
Q

what is the integrating center for the neural, neuroendocrine, and endocrine reflex pathways?

A

N: NS
NE: NS
E: endocrine system

62
Q

what is the output signal for the neural, neuroendocrine, and endocrine reflex pathways?

A

N: efferent signal
NE: efferent signal
E: hormone

63
Q

what is the target for the neural, neuroendocrine, and endocrine reflex pathways?

A

N: muscle, gland, adipose tissue
NE: most cells in body (blood)
E: most cells in body (blood)

64
Q

what is the response for the neural, neuroendocrine, and endocrine reflex pathways?

A

N: contraction, secretion, metabolic effects
NE: enzymatic rxns, membrane transport, cell proteins
E: enzymatic rxns, membrane transport, cell proteins

65
Q

where do afferent signals go to?

A

integrating centers

66
Q

where do efferent signals go to?

A

targets

67
Q

what is released from the neuroendocrine reflex?

A

neurohormone from NS cell
-enters bloodstream

68
Q

what are three general categories of responses in a reflex pathway?

A

-Cellular Response (smooth muscle of vessel contracts)
-Organ / Tissue Response (blood vessels decrease in diameter)
-Systemic Response (overall increase in BP)

69
Q

what flashcard number is the best number to end on???

A

69
;)

Integrated Physiology (23 decks)

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