Ethics Midterm Flashcards
- aims to define our moral responsibilities towards these issues, focusing on two main questions:
- What duties do we have toward the environment, and why?
- Addressing the “why” often precedes determining the “what,” as it involves understanding whether obligations are for current or future humans, or for the environment itself.
Environmental Ethics
- Is what our obligations are towards the environment. If these obligations are framed purely in terms of human benefit, the ethic is “___,” meaning it values only human interests.
- This view, dominant in _, has been challenged by those advocating for moral consideration of non-human entities, such as animals, organisms, or ecosystems.
The main question in environmental ethics
anthropocentric
Western philosophy
- Our current actions impact future humans.
- Moral Standing
– Justifying obligations to people we don’t yet know. - Challenges
- Future people cannot reciprocate.
– Obligations to the dead and transgenerational reciprocity as counterarguments.
ANTHROPOCENTRIC ETHICS AND FUTURE GENERATIONS
Extending Ethics to Future
Generations
- Issue: How can we owe obligations to future people when their identities are unknown?
- Critics’ View: Potential harm to future individuals despite overall benefits, akin to discriminatory practices.
The Non-Identity Problem
- Basic Needs: Future generations will require essential resources.
- Our obligation is to:
– Ensure future generations are not deprived of these necessities.
Philosophical Perspectives
Only humans have moral standing.
Example: Shooting a bear for fun would be permissible.
Intuition: Many feel harming animals, like shooting a bear or torturing a cat, is wrong.
Anthropocentric View:
PHILOSOPHERS ON ANIMAL RIGHTS
Peter Singer
Tom Regan
- Sentience: Ability to experience pleasure and pain.
Peter Singer
- Equal Consideration: Sentient beings’ interests should be weighed equally with human interests.
Peter Singer
- Utilitarian Framework: Aim for the greatest satisfaction of interests.
Peter Singer
- Rights-Based Approach: Conscious beings, or “__,” have inherent value.
Tom Regan
subjects-of-a-life
- Moral Rights: Rights impose limits on treatment, regardless of overall benefit.
Tom Regan
- Individual Rights: Cannot be overridden by greater good.
Tom Regan
- Critique: Too individualistic; may interfere with natural processes.
- Holistic Entities: Species and ecosystems sometimes conflict with individual animal rights.
- Example: Managing animal populations to prevent ecological damage (e.g., overpopulated rabbits).
CONFLICTS WITH ANIMAL-CENTERED ETHICS
Thought Experiment: “_”
* Scenario: Only one human and one tree remain; if the human destroys the tree,
* it feels intuitively wrong despite no harm to conscious beings.
* Implication: Suggests that individual living organisms, like trees, might have moral standing.
ETHICS ON INDIVIDUAL ORGANISMS
Moral Standing for All Living
Organisms
Last-Human Scenario
Do you believe in the theory of evolution?
Evidences that we have:
- Fossil Records
- Comparative Anatomy
- Embryology
- Molecular Evidence(DNA)
- Plants and Animals adapting
to the environment/prey/predators
Why do organisms evolve and adapt?
Due to:
- Adaptation to Environment?
- Natural Selection?
- Sexual Selection?
- But it is ultimately to survive
“Reverence for Life”
Albert Schweitzer’s
- Ethic: All living things have a
“will to live” and should not be
harmed unnecessarily.
Albert Schweitzer’s
- Critique: Concept of “will” may
not apply to many organisms.
Albert Schweitzer’s
- Teleological Centers of Life: Living organisms have inherent value and interests.
- Principles:
- Harm allowed in self-defense.
- Basic interests prioritized over non-basic.
- Self-sacrifice not required for others.
- Critiques of Taylor’s Approach
- Demanding Nature: May forbid actions like weeding a garden for aesthetic reasons.
- Hierarchical Approach: Plants have moral standing but with lower significance compared to humans.
Paul W. Taylor’s Perspective
CHALLENGES AND COUNTER ARGUMENTS
- Lack of Conscious Desire
- Individualistic Nature
Critics: Doubt attributing a “good” to organisms without conscious desires.
Counter: Biological flourishing can still be valuable even without conscious needs.
- Lack of Conscious Desire
Critics: Focus on individual organisms neglects ecosystems and species.
Proponents: Ecosystem concerns are integrated into ethics, though value is often tied to individual flourishing.
- Individualistic Nature
- Focus: Moral significance of entire
ecosystems or “land communities.”
HOLISTIC ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Aldo Leopold’s Land Ethics
- Concept: Land as a dynamic
system of energy flows involving
soils, plants, and animals.
Aldo Leopold’s Land Ethics
- Ethic: Actions are right if they
maintain the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community; wrong if they disrupt these qualities (Leopold, 1949/1989).
Aldo Leopold’s Land Ethics
- Criticisms:
Descriptive to Prescriptive: Transition from describing ecological systems to moral obligations lacks clarity on intrinsic value.
Aldo Leopold’s Land Ethics
Moral Sentiment: Leopold’s ethic appeals to emotional connections with the environment, expanding moral concern beyond human interests.
Defense by J. Baird Callicott
Criticisms:
* Objective Criteria: Ethics should be grounded in objective principles rather than personal feelings.
CHALLENGES TO SENTIMENT BASED ETHICS
- Functional Roles: Non-conscious entities like species and ecosystems have their own “good” based on their functional roles and life processes.
- Interests: These entities have interests that deserve consideration, even without conscious experiences.
Lawrence E. Johnson’s Alternative:
- Complex Questions:
Sacrificing Individuals: ____ might justify actions like culling invasive species for ecosystem preservation.
BALANCING INDIVIDUAL INTERESTS AND ECOSYSTEMS
Holistic ethics
Human Application: Potential for “___,” where human interests are sacrificed for ecological goals.
environmental fascism
Nested Communities: Moral obligations vary by the strength of commitments to different communities.
Example: Obligations to protect human communities may outweigh obligations to cull invasive species.
- Callicott’s Response
advocates for profound systemic changes to address environmental issues, challenging industrial capitalism and modern values
RADICAL ECOLOGY
It emphasizes deep systemic transformation, ecological sustainability, and intrinsic value of all life, often through direct activism and alternative worldviews.
RADICAL ECOLOGY
THE IDEAS OF RADICAL ECOLOGY
- Beyond Ethical Extensionism
- Holistic Reimagining
Critique: Traditional ethical approaches are criticized for being too human-centered.
Argument: Extending moral standing to non-human entities alone doesn’t address the deeper causes of environmental problems.
- Beyond Ethical Extensionism
Proposal: Shift in understanding our place within the natural world.
Advocacy: Integrate humans into the broader ecological system, rather than viewing them as separate or superior.
- Holistic Reimagining
POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CHANGE
- Systemic Reform
- Ecological Justice:
- __: __ call for comprehensive changes in societal institutions, economic systems, and cultural norms to address environmental issues.
Systemic Reform: Radical ecologies
__: They emphasize the link between environmental harm and social inequalities, advocating for reforms that address both ecological and social injustices.
Ecological Justice
- The belief that animals have intrinsic value and should be treated with respect and consideration.
Animal Rights
- Focus: Moral and ethical considerations, protection from harm.
Animal Rights
- Concerned with the well-being of animals in human contexts, ensuring they are well-cared for in settings like farming or research.
Animal Welfare
- Focus: Humane treatment, quality of life within human use.
Animal Welfare
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
- Ancient Cultures
- Evolution
Animals were seen as sacred or possessing intrinsic value.
- Ancient Cultures
Attitudes have shifted from reverence to more utilitarian views in some societies.
- Evolution
PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS
- Utilitarianism
- Deontological Ethics
Focuses on the greatest good for the greatest number, aiming to minimize overall suffering, which supports protecting animals from harm.
Utilitarianism
Emphasizes duty-based ethics, where actions are judged based on whether they are morally right, regardless of outcomes, which gives us the duty to treat animals right.
- Deontological Ethics
REAL WORLD APPLICATIONS OF ANIMAL RIGHTS
- Animal Testing
- Factory Farming
- Pets
- Conservation
- Animals are used in scientific research to test the safety and efficacy of new products.
Animal Testing
- Ethical Concerns: Balancing scientific advancement with the ethical treatment of animals.
Animal Testing
- Industrial farming practices often
involve confinement and poor living
conditions for animals.
Factory Farming
- Impacts: These practices raise
concerns about animal welfare,
environmental sustainability, and
food safety.
Factory Farming
_ rely on us for their care, and it’s our responsibility to ensure their well-being.
Our responsibilities as owners:
* Providing Basic Needs
* Exercise and Grooming
* Veterinary Care
* Companionship
Pets
- The importance of protecting endangered species and their habitats to maintain biodiversity.
Conservation
Examines moral implications of medical practices, research, and technologies.
Bioethics
The study of ethical issues arising from advances in biology and medicine.
Bioethics
ORIGINS OF BIOETHICS
- Nuremberg Trials (1947)
- Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972)
_ encompasses a wide range of issues, including medical research, patient care, biotechnology, and environmental concerns.
Bioethics
Highlighted unethical research practices and the need for informed consent.
- Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972)
Established principles for human subjects research.
Nuremberg Trials (1947)
KEY FIGURES IN BIOETHICS
- Peter Singer
- Tom Beauchamp & James Childress
Advocates for animal rights and bioethical issues related to euthanasia and infanticide
Peter Singer
Developed the influential principles of bioethics in their work “__.”
Tom Beauchamp & James Childress
Principles of Biomedical Ethics
PRINCIPLES OF BIOETHICS
Autonomy
Beneficence
Non-Maleficence
Justice
Individuals’ right to make informed decisions about their own bodies and treatment
Autonomy
Obligation to act in ways that benefit others and promote their well-being.
Beneficence
Duty to avoid causing harm to others.
Non-Maleficence
Principle of fairness and equitable distribution of resources and treatment.
Justice
- The process by which patients receive adequate information about and consent to medical treatments or research participation.
MAJOR ETHICAL ISSUES IN BIOETHICS
Informed Consent
Established principles for voluntary consent in human research following WWII war crimes.
- Nuremberg Code (1947)
Developed ethical guidelines for research, emphasizing respect for persons, beneficence, and justice.
Belmont Report (1979):
- Background: ____ were used for research without her consent.
- Ethical Issues: Lack of informed consent, exploitation, and the use of her cells without compensation.
Impact: - Led to increased awareness and reform in consent practices.
HeLa cells
Henrietta Lacks’ cells
- The manipulation of an organism’s genome using biotechnology.
Genetic Engineering
Mapping of the human genome raised new questions about genetic modifications.
Human Genome Project (1990-2003)
Recent advancements in gene-editing technology.
CRISPR Technology
GENETIC ENGINEERING - ETHICAL CONCERNS
- Unintended Consequences
- Genetic Enhancement
- Access and Inequality
Potential for unforeseen genetic mutations.
- Unintended Consequences
Ethical debates on modifying human traits.
- Genetic Enhancement
Risk of creating a genetic divide between different socioeconomic groups.
- Access and Inequality
Controversial use of CRISPR to edit embryos in China.
Real-Life Example:
* Gene Editing in Embryos
- Topics include euthanasia, assisted suicide, and palliative care.
End-of-Life Issues
Traditionally forbids assisting in suicide.
- Hippocratic Oath
Highlighted ethical debates around life support and patient autonomy.
- The Terri Schiavo Case (2005)
END-OF-LIFE ISSUES - ETHICAL DILEMMAS
- Autonomy vs. Sanctity of Life:
- Slippery Slope Concerns
Real-Life Example: - Assisted Suicide in Oregon:
Balancing patient’s wishes with ethical and religious beliefs.
- Autonomy vs. Sanctity of Life
Fears of abuse and euthanasia normalization.
- Slippery Slope Concerns
Legalization under the Death with Dignity Act.
Real-Life Example:
* Assisted Suicide in Oregon
- Technologies include IVF, surrogacy, and genetic screening.
Reproductive Technologies
__ birth marked a new era in reproductive technology.
- First IVF Baby (1978): Louise Brown’s
Recent debates on ethical implications.
- Gene Editing in Embryos
REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES – ETHICAL ISSUES
- Embryo Selection
- Surrogacy
Real-Life Example: - The Case of “Designer Babies”:
Concerns over “designer babies” and genetic manipulation.
- Embryo Selection
Ethical issues regarding surrogate rights and commercialization of reproduction.
- Surrogacy
Ethical concerns over selecting embryos based on traits.
- The Case of “Designer Babies”
- Cloning involves creating a genetically identical copy of a human being.
Human Cloning
First mammal cloned from an adult somatic cell.
- Dolly the Sheep (1996)
HUMAN CLONING –ETHICAL CONCERNS
- Identity and Individuality
- Exploitation Risks
Real-Life Example: - Raelian Movement
Issues regarding the cloned individual’s identity and rights.
Identity and Individuality
Potential for cloning for organ harvesting or other unethical purposes.
- Exploitation Risks
Claims of human cloning but lacking scientific validation.
- Raelian Movement
CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES ON BIOETHICS
- Diverse Beliefs
- Respect for Traditions
- Informed Consent
- End-of-Life Care
Different cultures and religions have varying beliefs about medical practices, health, and ethics. These differences can affect attitudes towards issues like euthanasia, reproductive technologies, and genetic engineering.
- Diverse Beliefs
Understanding cultural practices and respecting traditional beliefs are crucial in addressing ethical issues. Practices considered acceptable in one culture may be viewed as unethical in another.
- Respect for Traditions
In some cultures, communal decision-making is preferred over individual consent. For instance, in certain Asian cultures, family consent might take precedence over individual autonomy.
- Informed Consent
Views on euthanasia and assisted suicide can vary widely. For example, in many Western countries, there is growing acceptance of euthanasia, while in many traditional societies, such practices are strictly prohibited due to religious beliefs.
- End-of-Life Care
RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVES ON BIOETHICS
- Ethical Guidelines
- Influence on Policies
- Christianity
- Islam
- Buddhism
Different religions provide guidelines that shape their adherents’ views on bioethical issues. These guidelines often reflect broader moral and theological principles.
- Ethical Guidelines
Religious beliefs can influence national and international bioethical policies and practices.
- Influence on Policies
Generally opposes euthanasia and assisted suicide, emphasizing the sanctity of life. However, there is diversity within denominations on issues like reproductive technologies and genetic engineering.
- Christianity
Typically prohibits cloning and genetic modifications that interfere with God’s creation. There is also a strong emphasis on the sanctity of life and the importance of palliative care.
- Islam
Ethical standards can vary significantly between countries and regions. These differences are influenced by local laws, cultural norms, and economic conditions.
- Variation in Standards
Often emphasizes compassion and may support palliative care and end-of-life care that alleviates suffering. Attitudes towards reproductive technologies and genetic engineering vary based on interpretation.
- Buddhism
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES ON BIOETHICS
- Variation in Standards
- International Guidelines
- Healthcare Access
- Global Pandemics
Global disparities in access to healthcare and medical technologies highlight ethical issues related to justice and equity. In developing countries, access to basic medical care remains a significant challenge, while developed nations often have more advanced technologies.
- Healthcare Access
Organizations like the _ and _ work to develop international guidelines that balance diverse ethical perspectives.
- International Guidelines
World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations (UN)
The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted ethical issues around vaccine distribution, with debates about equitable access and the ethical responsibilities of wealthy nations to support global health initiatives.
- Global Pandemics
