Enlightenment and Revolutions Flashcards
a ruler whose power was not limited by having to consult with others
absolute monarch
3 motivations for the exploration of the New World
gold
God
glory
the idea that monarchs received their power from God and therefore must not be challenged
Divine right of kings
became the Holy Roman Emperor in 1519 and used his power to confront the growing Protestant movement in Europe
Charles V
gave each German prince the right to decide whether his state would be Catholic or Protestant
Peace of Augsburg
became a respected Spanish religious artist even though he was not born in Spain
El Greco
wrote DON QUIXOTE DE LA MANCHA in order to ridicule the medieval idea of chivalry
Miguel de Cervantes
the Catholic ruler of Spain and leader of the Counter-Reformation who fought English and Dutch protestants in battle
Philip II
The Spanish Duke of Alba set up ___________ in the Netherlands which tortured and executed thousands suspected of rebellion
Court of Blood
led the Low Countries in their rebellion against the Spanish king
honored as the father of the Dutch country
William I of Orange “The Silent”
bold English pirates who raided Spanish shipping
sea dogs
this event in 1588 made England the greatest naval power in the world and won popular support for the English queen
the defeat of the Spanish Armada
ruled France through her sons
Catherine de Medici
What did Catherine de Medici do in 1572?
ordered the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre to rid Paris of French Calvanists
French Calvanists
Huguenots
became a Catholic in order to rule France
“Paris is worth a mass”
Henry IV
the French king declared in this that Huguenots could hold office and rule 200 towns in which they had majority
Edict of Nantes
the advisor to Louis XIII who solidified his power by suppressing dissent and entering the 30 Years’ War
Cardinal Richelieu
the Sun King of France who began his rule at the age of 5
Louis XIV
Where the Sun King’s royal palace was built - a village which became a home for French kings during the 1700s
Versailles
The Sun King’s minister of Finance
Jean Baptiste Colbert
top of the 3rd estate
bourgeoisie - city merchants, factory owners, professionals
bottom of 3rd estate
peasants
sans culottes
city workers
without knee breeches
3 causes of the French Revolution
Inequalities in Society
Enlightenment ideas
Financial crisis
led England in the via media for 46 years
Elizabeth
plotted against her cousin the queen of England and was beheaded
Mary Stuart
the 1st of the Stuart kings and a vocal proponent of divine right directed an English translation of the Bible
James I
Calvinists who demanded that the Church of England be further reformed by eliminating practices that were too Catholic
Puritans
led the royal forces during the English Civil War - was captured and beheaded
Charles I
Englishmen who remained loyal to the king during the English Civil War
Cavaliers/Royalists
Puritan supporters of the Parliament during the English civil war
Roundheads
led the forces who were loyal to the Parliament - became Lord Protector in the commonwealth
Oliver Cromwell
wrote LEVIATHAN
believed that, because humans were naturally evil, an absolute monarchy was the best form of gov’t
Thomas Hobbes
The “Merry Monarch” who led England during the Restoration - secretly receiving loans from France
Charles II
king of England who fled to France after the birth of his son
James II
enthroned by the Glorious Revolution
William and Mary
William and Mary signed what and why
Bill of Rights
guaranteeing certain rights
a monarchy limited by the law
constitutional monarchy
wrote two TREATISES ON GOV’T to explain in what circumstances individuals might be justified in rebelling against their government
John Locke
the landowners that ruled Russia in the 1500s
boyars
a prince of Russia claimed what title in 1546
czar/caesar
descended into madness in the 1560s, killing thousands of people in Novgorod and eventually killing his own son
Ivan IV the Terrible
began the westernization of Russia, focusing on building up industry, starting newspapers, and sponsoring education
Peter I the Great
this new capital was built in the early 1700s on a warm water port won from Sweden
St. Petersburg
seized power from her husband and was declared czarina of Russia
tried to enact Enlightenment ideas such as individual freedom, but wars and internal rebellions forced her to strengthen her authority
Catherine The Great
ruled the Holy Roman Empire since the 1450s
Hapsburg family
began as a religious dispute in Prague
30 Years’ War
Why did Spain enter the 30 years’ war
to support Ferdinand, the Holy Roman Emperor
who joined the Protestant opposition when encouraged by Catholic Cardinal Richelieu
the king of France
what ended the 30 years’ war
the treaty of westphalia
who ruled Austria
the Hapsburg family
who ruled Prussia
the Hohenzollern family
allowed the title of Holy Roman Emperor to pass to his daughter Maria Theresa
Pragmatic Sanction
What did Frederick II the Great do in response to the Pragmatic Sanction
seized Silesia from Austria and began the War of Austrian Succession
what allowed England to take possession of Canada
the 7 years’ war/french and indian war
emerged from the 30 years’ war as the strongest military power in Europe
Prussia
the belief that the earth revolved around the sun
heliocentric theory
wrote ON THE REVOLUTIONS OF THE HEAVENLY SPHERES which used physics, astronomy, and mathematics to explain the function of the solar system
Nicolaus Copernicus
formulated the 3 laws of planetary motion from Tycho Brahe’s observations, proving that Copernicus’ observations were correct
Johannes Kepler
built a telescope and from careful observations published a book supporting the heliocentric theory called STARRY MESSENGER
forced to recant it before the Inquisition
Galileo Galilei
published the medical book ON THE WORKINGS OF THE HUMAN BODY
Andreas Vesalius
demonstrated that the heart acts as a pump to circulate the blood
english doctor WIlliam Harvey
Dutch inventor of the microscope
Antony van Leeuwenhoek
used a microscope to observe microscopic plants
credited with formulating the word cell
Robert Hooke
described the interaction of temperature, volume, and pressure of gases in his book THE SKEPTICAL CHEMIST
Robert Boyle
the French philosopher who placed great emphasis on reason, using mathematics and logic to prove basic truths
I think therefore I am
argued that everything should be doubted until it could be proved by reason and relied on math and reason to prove basic truths
Rene Descartes
the English scientist who brought together astronomy, physics, and math
THE MATHEMATICAL PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY laid the groundwork for calculus
Isaac Newton
the time of unbridled optimism when humans came to believe that the application of reason to human nature and society could lead to the solution of all human problems
The Enlightenment
Age of Reason
A center for the Enlightenment
Paris
primary gathering places for philosophers, scientists, artists, and writers to discuss new ideas
salons
believed that without an all-powerful government to restrain human vices, our lives would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short
Thomas Hobbes
the unwritten agreement between government and human society to maintain peace, safety, and order by giving up certain rights
social contract
believed people had natural rights to life, liberty, and property which must be protected by any legitimate government
John Locke
believed that society corrupted people
THE SOCIAL CONTRACT said man is born free but everywhere is in chains
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
praised the government of Great Britain in THE SPIRIT OF THE LAWS because he believed that its power was separated into 3 separate branches
Baron de Montesquieu
French philosophers who criticized social injustices wherever they were found
philosophes
the French social order which placed the king at the top and 3 social groups beneath him
ancien regime
king and queen during the French Revolution
Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette
about Marie-Antoinette
frivolous and self-indulgent Austrian
1st estate - and percentage
Roman Catholic clergy 1%
2nd estate and %
nobility -2%
Francois-Marie Arouet wrote plays, poetry, novels, essays, historical and scientific works, over 20,000 letters and over 2 thousand books and pamphlets mocking French society and culture under the pen name
Voltaire
wrote a 28 volume ENCYCLOPEDIA to promote knowledge, especially of the new ideas in art, science, government, and religion
Denis Diderot
demanded in A VINDICATION OF THE RIGHTS OF WOMAN that men and women receive equal education and opportunity
Mary Wollstonecraft
used reason to analyze economic systems in his 1776 THE WEALTH OF NATIONS
Adam Smith
THE WEALTH OF NATIONS advocated ________, a system that operated without governmental interference
laissez-faire economics (leave alone)
monarchs who ruled according to Enlightenment ideas
Enlightened despots
tried to establish an elementary educational system and abolished torture in Prussia
invited Voltaire to visit Prussia to see his work
Frederick II
Why did Great Britain tax the American colonies?
to pay the French and Indian War debt
what did Parliament pass that required colonists to pay for an official seal on all newspapers, legal documents, and other public papers
Stamp Act
protested the tax on tea in an event known as the Boston Tea Party
Sons of Liberty
When did the American Revolution begin?
when shots were fired in Lexington (shot heard round the world)
written by Thomas Paine to argue that the colonies had matured to the point that they deserved independence
Common Sense
penned the Declaration of Independence, espousing Enlightenment ideals such as natural rights and Locke’s social contract theory
Thomas Jefferson
2nd continental congress elected ________ to be the commanding general of the American forces.
George Washington
The American victory at ________ was critical because it allowed Benjamin Franklin to procure support from the French king Louis XVI
Saratoga
British forces under Cornwallis surrendered where?
Yorktown, Virginia
formally recognized U.S. independence
Treaty of Paris
the first government of the United States
failed because it was too weak to govern efficiently
Articles of Confederation
played a leading role in negotiating the creation of a new government
considered the Father of the Constitution
James Madison
certain powers are held by a central government, while other powers are reserved for the state governments in this system
federal system
this branch consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate and has the power to make laws
legislative or Congress
this branch includes the president who has the power to carry out laws
executive
this branch consists of all federal courts, has the power to interpret laws
judicial
ensures that no branch of government becomes too powerful
system of checks and balances
the first 10 amendments to the Constitution guarantees natural rights advocated by Voltaire, Locke, and Rousseau
Bill of Rights
top of the 3rd estate - city-dwelling merchants, factory owners, and professionals
bourgeoisie
artisans and city workers
sans-culottes
without knee breeches
bottom of the third estate
worked in the fields
peasants
3 causes of the French Revolution
inequalities in Society
enlightenment ideas
financial crisis
an assembly of representatives from each of the estates
called by the king
Estates general
to prepare for the estates general meeting, each representative prepared _____, or notebooks listing grievances and areas of concern
cahiers
the 3rd estate proclaimed themselves the ____________ with the right to make laws for France
National Assembly
Third Estate’s vow to continue to meet until they had created a constitution
Tennis Court Oath
a mob stormed the _____, an action which became a powerful symbol of the French Revolution
Bastille prison
after the mob violence in Paris _______ spread violence across the countryside
a panic - Great Fear
the National Assembly adopted the
DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN AND OF THE CITIZEN
the slogan of the French Revolution
Liberty, equality, fraternity
What 3 actions did the National Assembly take in November 1789 regarding the church?
seized church lands and sold them
disbanded religious orders
turned the clergy into public employees
What did the king and queen attempt to do unsuccessfully after the completion of the new constitution?
flee Paris
The Legislative Assembly declared war on
Austria and Prussia
A mob marched on ______, slaughtered the guards, and took the royal family prisoner
Tuileries palace
the escalating violence of the Revolution propelled the _______, those who favored extreme change, into power
radical faction
the most radical members of the newly constituted National Convention who sat on the left side of the assembly hall
Montagnards (Mountain)
moderates from the provinces who resented the excessive incluence of the Parisian mobs
Girondins
swing voters in the National Convention
Plain
a violent agitator during the first stage of the Revolution who later came to oppose its excesses
Georges-Jacques Danton
a devoted revolutionist who led the National Assembly during its most blood thirsty stage
Maximilien Robespierre
the king was executed by _____
the guillotine
the National Convention set up ______ to manage France’s military defense and to eliminate citizens who threatened the Revolution
Committee of Public Safety
Robespierre created the _______ to replace Roman Catholicism and renamed Notre Dame to ________.
cult of the supreme being
temple of reason
created to replace the old system of weights and measures
metric system
a new calendar containing months with _____ weeks of ____ days each was also created
3
10
the radicals’ attempt to maintain control of the Revolution through a series of accusations, trials, and executions
Reign of Terror
after the end of feudal dues, the _______ returned to their conservative views, remaining devoutly Catholic and opposing the Revolution’s anticlerical moves
peasants
during the _____ months of terror, some _____ people were arrested and _______ were executed
10
300000
17000
the national convention’s new constitution created _____ a governing board made up of 5 men
directory
Napoleon freed the port of ______ from British troops
Toulon
Napoleon dispersed a mob of _____ seeking to regain power in Paris
royalists
Napoleon drove the Ottomans out of Egypt, but was defeated by the ________ in the Battle of the Nile
British navy
a forced transfer of political or military power
coup d’etat
Napoleon was named _______, the leader of a new government called the Consulate
1st consul
Napoleon submitted a _______, question put before all voters, on the question of empire and was elected emperor
plebiscite
Who crowned Napoleon emperor
himself
Napoleon sold ______ to the United States so he could focus his attention on Europe
Louisiana Territory
Through the Napoleonic Wars, ______ remained France’s greatest enemy
Great Britain
French naval forces were defeated at the Battle of _________
Trafalgar
French army won a devastating victory at the Battle of ________, near Vienna over combined Russian and Austrian troops
Austerlitz
Napoleon’s continental system was in effect a ______ which had the unintended consequence of sparking the War of 1812 in the US
blokade
The Peninsular War began with French victories, but then became a _____ war in which bands of Spanish peasants ambushed French troops and raided French camps
guerrilla
Napoleon’s ________ with the Catholic Church recognized the influence of the church in France without relinquishing any power or control
concordat
made laws uniform across France and eliminated many injustices
promoted order and stability over individual rights
Napoleonic Code
Freedom of the press was restricted by ______ who banned certain books and newspapers
censors
Napoleon’s actions in Europe helped fuel the spread of _____ not only in France but also in the peoples France conquered
nationalism
Napoleon decided to invade Russia with a total of _______ men including new recruits from conquered territories
600000
As the French army advanced, Russian troops and peasants ______ burning their fields as they moved
withdrew
burning useful things as a military strategy
scorched earth policy
the French captured ______ but found it deserted and burning
Moscow
the French turned home, but _____ and ______ killed thousands
starvation and freezing temperatures
only ______ french soldiers returned home
94000
The French lost the battle of _______ signaling the end
Leipzeig
Napoleon was exiled to the island of ____ off the coast of Italy
Elba
Napoleon’s escape and return to France began the ________, a brief period of renewed glory for Napoleon (and problems for the allies)
Hundred Days
Napoleon was finally defeated at the Battle of _____ in Belgium
Waterloo
Napoleon was then exiled to ________ an island in the South Pacific
Saint Helena
During Napoleon’s first exile, a grand meeting called the ________ and brought together some 700 diplomats to create a plan to restore order and stability in Europe
Congress of Vienna
dominated the congress of vienna
Prince Klemens von Metternich
Metternich wanted to restore the _______ between European nations and restore hereditary _______ to their thrones
balance of power
monarchies
Leaders of the Congress also strengthened the nations near ____ by redrawing national borders
France
Austria joined 38 German states to form the _________
German Confederation
a payment to compensate for damages
an indemnity
leaders who oppose progress and desire to return to the conditions of an earlier time
reactionaries
How did the 3rd estate wish to change the voting progress?
the 1st and 2nd estate couldn’t outvote them
original goal of the Spanish exploration
to find a shortcut to the east
What did Charles V do?
became Holy Roman Emperor
fought against the protestants
forced to sign the Peace of Augsburg
supported the conquistadors
3 conquistadors and their areas
Cortez in Mexico
Pizarro in Peru
Coronado in the Great South west
results of Spanish exploration
Spain became the richest nation in Europe, but failed to develop trade and manufacturing
Black Legend
belief that Spain exceeded other nations in cruelty to conquered peoples
What did Bartolome de las casas do
banned slavery
prohibited forced labor
provided for gradual abolition of the encomienda system
What did Philip II do?
gold and silver from colonies made spain wealthy
used wealth and power to establish Catholicism
The Netherlands broke away from Spain why?
to establish a Protestant nation
Who led the dutch until his assassination?
William I of Orange the Silent
When did the Dutch begin creating a capitalist economy?
In the lull after the defeat of the Spanish Armada
recognized Dutch independence
Peace of Westphalia
What did French rulers typically support?
Catholicism
2 points about Catherine de Medici
ruled through her sons
What did Henry IV of Navarre do?
ended the civil war by converting to Catholicism
issued the edict of nantes legalizing Calvinism
Who was Cardinal Richelieu?
economic advisor (prime minister) to French kings
Richelieu’s 2 primary goals
centralization of power
2 things Richelieu did
ordered fortified castles to be razed
led troops against the Hugenot cities, abolishing rights and protections
Who were the Habsburgs
German kings who also ruled Austria and Spain
Louis XIV’s nickname?
the Sun King
Sun King’s belief about himself
absolute almost divine monarch
the state
Where did the Sun King live and force his nobles to live?
Versailles
What happened to the nobility during the Sun King’s reign?
lost touch with commoners
What did the Sun King like?
opera and extravagant art
What did Colbert do?
saved the economy through mercantilism
What did the Sun King do religiously?
outlawed Protestantism
Sun King politically>
led France into the War of Spanish Succession
Who were the strong catholics around Elizabeth I
Mary Tudor and Mary Stuart
Who were the Calvinists around Elizabeth?
Puritans
What did Mary Stuart do?
became queen consort of france
returned to Scotland after husband’s death, was forced to abdicate
English Catholics tried to get her to replace Elizabeth
Elizabeth put her in prison for 18 years, then had her beheaded
How did Elizabeth gain support?
Victory over Spanish Armada
the defeat of the Spanish Armada
Philip II attacked in response to Mary’s execution, the knighting of Francis Drake, and British support of the Netherlands
50 out of 130 Spanish ships are lost
Elizabeth’s financial problems
taxes couldn’t compete with Spain in conquering the new world
permitted joint-stock companies to be made
About James I (James IV of Scotland)
son of Mary Stuart advocated divine right of kings survived gunpowder plot constantly short of $ and at odds with Parliament authorized KJV
About Charles I
advocated divine right
forced to limit power by THE PETITION OF RIGHTS
conflict with Parliament - dismissing it and bring it back when short on money
arrested members of Parliament
executed
who supported the king
cavaliers/royalists
who supported Parliament
roundheads
Who led the new model army to victory?
oliver cromwell
What title did Cromwell receive over the commonwealth
Lord Protector
Oliver Cromwell helped write…
first written constitution of a major European nation
Why was Cromwell unpopular?
forbade fun
brutal conquest of Ireland
What was Charles II known as and why?
Merry Monarch - restored theater and stuff, helped with Great Fire and Great Plague
What did Parliament force Charles II to sign?
Habeas Corpus to limit his power
Why did Charles II sign a secret treaty with Louis XIV of France?
Parliament refused to give him funds
James II
became king after brother’s death
Catholic with 2 Protestant daughters
created an army, alarming many
Declaration of Indulgence angered Anglicans
Had a son by 2nd wife - refused French aid, lost support and fled to France
What is the glorious revolution?
William and Marhy
Who were Mary and William?
James II oldest daughter and her husband
William and Mary are invited in, and agree to…
reign according to Parliament
follow British laws and customs and an English Bill of Rights
Ivan IV the Terrible
oprichniki killed lots of boyars (landowners)
Ivan killed and tortured citizens of Novgorod
killed own son in anger, leaving no heir
Conditions in Russia during Peter the Great
agricultural
dependent on serfs
isolated from European culture
Personality of Peter the Great
tall strong intelligent well educated had a bad temper
Peter’s accomplishments
toured Europe and learned its culture
Ways Peter modernized Russia
raised the status of women
adopted the European calendar
introduced new crops
built factories
Catherine the Great
attempted to be an enlightened despot, but internal wars and foreign rebellions forced her to restrict freedoms - continued serfdom
led in the partition of Poland
Why was Europe unstable in the 1700s?
few natural barriers
no middle class
weak governments
What was Poland like?
divided between a few nobles
what happened to the Ottoman Empire
decaying
Holy Empire was made up of
300 independent states
What did the Habsburgs rule?
a polyglot state made up of Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, and some small German states
What did Charles VI do?
worked out a pragmatic sanction so his daughter Maria Theresa could rule
What did Frederick William I do?
built a military state
What did Frederick II do?
ignored the pragmatic sanction and invaded Austria
Who invades Austria in the War of Austrian Succession?
France, Spain, and some Germanic states
Who is on Austria’s side in the Austrian Succession?
Great Britain and Hungary
Result of the War of Austrian Succession?
Austria not overrun, but lost Silesia
Why was the 7 Years’ War fought?
for Austria to regain Silesia
Who helped Austria?
France
Who was against Austria in the French and Indian War?
Great Britain and Prussia
Result of 7 Years’ War?
Austria gained nothing
France lost canada and much of her Indian colonies
Characteristics of the enlightenment with explanation?
reason - not authority
nature - whatever is natural is right
happiness - a well lived life leads to happiness
progress - life is getting better and better
liberty - freedom from all irrational constraints
Impacts of the Enlightenment
exalted reason, devalued faith
freedom became the greatest good, separating individuals from relationship
focus was placed on remaking political and social structures to improve the human’s condition, not on man’s need for God
What sort of government did the British have around the American Revolution?
constitutional monarchy
What did the British cabinet do?
advise the hanover king
What did the prime minister lead?
the cabinet and Parliament
What was the British empire like after the 7 years’ war?
spread across the colonies
What was the colonists’ response to taxes that became the American slogan?
No taxation without representation
4 events that led to the American revolution
Stamp Act
Boston Massacre
Boston Tea Party
Battle of Lexington and Concord
5 reasons America won the war
strong motivation - fighting for their homes
guerrilla tactics
commitment - British wanted peace soon
military leadership - charismatic Washington
aid of the French and others
4 points of the American constitution
separation of powers
checks and balances
federalism
bill of rights
What did the French king do after the 3rd estate broke off?
brought troops into paris
What does the assembly do?
ends feudalism
What does the Committee of Public Safety say they are doing?
creating a new reality
What did Robespierre seek to do?
quell civil war
purify the nation
Under Robespierre…
cultural changes
thousands executed in sham trials
Why was Robespierre beheaded?
the National Assembly felt threatened
What happened to the Directory?
weakness and corruption led to a power vacuum
Where was Napoleon from?
Corsica
What did the Napoleonic Wars win for France?
Europe
What did the Continental system fail to do?
isolate Great Britain
What did the Peninsular War do?
lock France into guerrilla war
How did Napoleon find rulers for all his captured nations?
used relatives
What did Napoleon leave behind?
economic stability
legal reforms
expanded education
nationalism
Napoleon’s legal reforms
equality before the law
representative government
Another term for Congress of Vienna
Concert of Europe
What did the Congress of Vienna do?
brought European nations together to reconstruct Europe
Who came to represent France?
Tallyrand
2 results of the congress of vienna
redrawn map of Europe
stability
