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Anatomy Final > Endocrine System > Flashcards

Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

what are the two main types of glands?

A

endocrine

exocrine

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2
Q

____ are ductless

A

endocrine

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3
Q

_____ have ducts

A

exocrine

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4
Q

which secrete hormones into surrounding tissue fluid

A

endocrine

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5
Q

give examples of endocrine glands?

A 
pituitary
thyroid
parathyroid
adrenal
pineal
thymus
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6
Q

which organs have discrete areas of endocrine tissue as well as exocrine tissue

A

pancreas
gonads
hypothalamus

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7
Q

nonhormonal products are…

A

directed to membrane surfaces

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8
Q

define hormones

A

chemical substances secreted by cells into extracellular fluids, that regulate metabolic function of other cells in the body

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9
Q

most hormones are..

A

amino acid based hormones

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10
Q

give examples of steroid hormones

A

gonadal and adrenocortical hormones

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11
Q

the main mechanism of action for hormones is

A

to increase or decrease rates of normal cellular activity

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12
Q

name some of the hormonal effects?

A 
alter plasma membrane permeability
alter protein or regulatory molecule synthesis
activate or inactivate enzyme
induction of secretory activity
stimulate mitosis
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13
Q

what are some of the mechanisms that transduce hormonal signal into an intracellular change

A

G-protein linked receptor activation of intracellular second messengers
direct gene activation

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14
Q

G-protein linked receptor activation of intracellular is done by….

A

amino acid hormones

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15
Q

direct gene activation is done by…

A

steroid hormones

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16
Q

give an overview of cAMP

A
  1. signal molecule binds to cell-surface receptor protein
  2. this activates a G protein in intracellular fluid
  3. G protein GDP is replaced by GTP when that subunit is activated
  4. diffuses within plasma membrane until it reaches Adenylate cyclase
  5. it activates
  6. this produces cAMP from ATP
  7. the cAMP formed in inner surface of membrane diffuses into cytoplasm where it binds to and activates protein kinase
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17
Q

give an overview of PIP Calcium signal mechanism

A

Phospholipase is an enzyme that will cut a phospholipid
DAG remains in the membrane and this activates PKC
IP3 is soluble in cytoplasm
it works on a intracellular receptor on smooth E.R.
this causes the SER to release calcium into cytoplasm
the calcium activates PKC

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18
Q

direct gene activation mainly is for ________ hormones

A

steroid

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19
Q

steroid hormones are ____ solube

A

lipid

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20
Q

since steroid hormones are lipid soluble, they are able to pass through…

A

plasma membrane

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21
Q

once inside, what do the steroid hormones do?

A

bind to intracellular receptor

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22
Q

the binding of the steroid hormone to the intracellular receptor forms…

A

activated complex

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23
Q

what does the activated complex later do?

A

passes into nucleus and binds to specific DNA sequences

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24
Q

the association with the DNA sequence does what?

A

turns on gene

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25
Q

target cell specificity is mediated by…

A

specific protein receptors

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26
Q

where are the receptors localized?

A

to cells that are influenced by a given hormone

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27
Q

what do hormones act as?

A

molecular triggers

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28
Q

what are the factors affecting target cell activation?

A

hormonal levels
number of receptors on target cell
receptor affinty

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29
Q

define half-life

A

measure of hormonal persistence in blood stream

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30
Q

what affects the half-life?

A

depends on rate of synthesis and release

speed of removal or degradation

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31
Q

the onset of effect is dependent on…

A

hormonal type

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32
Q

steroid hormone has a slower onset and…

A

lower magnitude of effect and longer lifetime

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33
Q

what kind of feedback controls hormone release?

A

negative

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34
Q

hormone secretion is triggered in response to a

A

stimulus

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35
Q

as hormone level increases, what happens?

A

target organ is affected

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36
Q

name the 3 types of stimuli for hormone release

A

humoral
neural
hormonal

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37
Q

describe the humoral response

A

endocrine glands release hormones in direct response to changing levels of ions or nutrients

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38
Q

describe neural response

A

nerve fibers stimulate hormonal release

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39
Q

describe hormonal response

A

occurs when a hormone is secreted that in turn, stimulates the secretion of other hormones.

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40
Q

another name for the pituitary is the

A

hypophysis

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41
Q

where is the pituitary located?

A

rests in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone

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42
Q

to what is the pituitary connected to?

A

the superiorly lying hypothalamus

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43
Q

what is the infundibulum?

A

its the stalk-like connection between the two

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44
Q

the hypothalamus is part of the

A

brain

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45
Q

what does the hypothalamus serve as?

A

connection between brain and endocrine system

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46
Q

what are the 2 main lobes?

A

posterior

anterior

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47
Q

Posterior lobe + infundibulum =

A

neurohypophysis

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48
Q

what is the anterior lobe comprised of?

A

glandular tissue

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49
Q

the two main lobes are highly….

A

vascular

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50
Q

posterior lobe is an…

A

outgrowth of the brain and maintains its neural connections

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51
Q

what do the neurons in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus give rise to?

A

the hypothalamic- hypophyseal tract

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52
Q

where are hormones synthesized?

A

in the secretory cells of the hypothalamus

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53
Q

when neurons fire, what happens?

A

hormones are released into capillary bed in posterior pituitary

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54
Q

the anterior lobe is derived from

A

epithelial tissue

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55
Q

the anterior lobe has no direct connection between…

A

posterior pituitary or hypothalamus

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56
Q

the anterior lobe has a vascular connection called

A

hypophyseal portal veins

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57
Q

_____ and ______ hormones secreted by hypothalamus are carried by portal system to anterior pituitary

A

releasing and inhibiting

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58
Q

what is the anterior pituitary referred to as?

A

Master gland

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59
Q

what are the anterior pituitary tropic hormones?

A

they regulate secretory activity of other endocrine glands

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60
Q

name the anterior pituitary tropic hormones

A

TSH: thyroid stimulating hormone
ACTH: adrenocorticotropic hormone
FSH:follicle-stimulating hormone
LH: luteinizing hormone

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61
Q

what are the other 2 hormones that are not tropic?

A

PRL: Prolactin
GH:growth hormone

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62
Q

the other 2 hormones have…

A

neuroendocrine targets

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63
Q

the growth hormone is controlled by the…

A

anterior pituitary gland

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64
Q

the growth hormone is produced by

A

somatotropic cells

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65
Q

what does the growth hormone do?

A

stimulates most cells in the body to grow and divide

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66
Q

what are the major targets of the growth hormone?

A

bones and muscles

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67
Q

the growth hormone can also be called the ____ hormone

A

anabolic

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68
Q

what does it do?

A

promotes metabolism

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69
Q

growth-promoting effects are mediated….

A

indirectly

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70
Q

what are IGF’s

A

insulin-like growth factors

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71
Q

what produces IGF’s

A

liver and other tissues

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72
Q

name all the effects of the growth hormone

A

stimulates uptake of amino acids from blood and their incorporation into proteins
stimulates sulfur uptake
mobilizes fats from fat deposits
decreases rate of glucose uptake and metabolism

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73
Q

name the 2 regulations of the the GH by the hypothalamic hormone

A

GHRH

GHIH

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74
Q

name the GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone)

A

somatocrinin (positive effect)

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75
Q

name the GHIH (growth hormone inhibiting hormone)

A

somatostatin (negative effect)

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76
Q

IGF (insulin-like growth factors) has what kind of effect on GH

A

negative

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77
Q

IGF has what kind of effect on somatostatin

A

positive

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78
Q

gigantism results from…

A

adolescent hypersecretion

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79
Q

acromegaly results from…

A

adult hypersecretion

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80
Q

progeria occurs when __________ is severe

A

adult hyposecretion

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81
Q

adolescent hyposcretion can be related to…

A

pituitary dwarfism

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82
Q

TSH stands for

A

thyroid-stimulating hormone

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83
Q

what does TSH do?

A

stimulates normal growth and activity of the thyroid gland

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84
Q

TSH can be considered what type of hormone?

A

tropic hormone

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85
Q

what controls the TSH?

A

hypothalamus

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86
Q

how does the hypothalamus control the TSH?

A

By releasing thyroid releasing hormone (TRH)

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87
Q

what can inhibit the release of TSH?

A

GHIH

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88
Q

What does ACTH stand for?

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

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89
Q

what does ACTH do?

A

stimulates adrenal cortex to release corticosteroid hormones

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90
Q

what can it help release?

A

glucocorticoids

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91
Q

what do glucocorticoids do?

A

offset effects of stress

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92
Q

ACTH release is controlled by ______

A

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

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93
Q

what kind of hormone is CRH?

A

a hypothalamic hormone

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94
Q

CRH has a _____ rhythm

A

diurnal (24 hr)

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95
Q

name the feedback inhibition of ACTH

A

rising glucocorticoids

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96
Q

name the 2 gonadotropins

A

FSH and LH

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97
Q

what do gonadotropins do exactly?

A

regulate gonads

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98
Q

what does FSH stand for?

A

follicle stimulating hormone

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99
Q

what does FSH stimulate?

A

gamete production

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100
Q

what does LH stand for?

A

Lutenizing hormone

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101
Q

what does LLH promote?

A

production of gonadal hormones

102
Q

FSH and LH work in concert to cause what?

A

follicle to mature

103
Q

____ causes egg to be extruded from follicle

A

LH

104
Q

In males, what does LH stimulate?

A

interstitial cells of the testes to produce testosterone

105
Q

what controls the release of LH and FSH?

A

hypothalamus

106
Q

how does the hypothalamus regulate the release of LH and FSH?

A

through the use of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

107
Q

Prolactin stimulates what?

A

milk production

108
Q

Prolactin is controlled by what 2 hormones?

A

prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) and prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH)

109
Q

T/F estrogen has a + effect on PRH

A

True

110
Q

ADH and oxytocin are comprised of what?

A

9 amino acids

111
Q

ADH and oxytocin are released as a result of what?

A

neural signals from hypothalamus

112
Q

oxytocin is stored where?

A

posterior pituitary gland

113
Q

what does oxytocin do?

A

stimulates smooth muscle contraction

114
Q

____________depends on number of oxytocin receptors

A

muscle response

115
Q

name some places where muscle responses from oxytocin could occur.

A

uterus
breast
pregnancy

116
Q

oxytocin is a hormonal trigger for…

A

milk ejection

117
Q

what does ADH stand for?

A

antidiuretic hormone

118
Q

what does ADH do?

A

inhibits or prevents urine production

119
Q

why does the hypothalamus release ADH?

A

in response to increases in solute concentration

120
Q

what does ADH cause the kidneys to do?

A

reabsorb more water

121
Q

At high doses, what does ADH cause?

A

vasoconstriction

122
Q

diabetes insipidus is caused by a

A

deficiency in ADH secretion

123
Q

one of the main symptoms of diabetes insipidus is…

A

output of huge amounts of urine and thirst

124
Q

describe the structure of the thyroid gland

A

2 lobes containing follicles connected by isthmus

125
Q

the center of each thyroid follicle is filled with _______-

A

colloid

126
Q

what is colloid composed of?

A

thyroglobulin

127
Q

_______ stores colloid

A

lumen

128
Q

thyroglobulin is associated with?

A

iodine

129
Q

the thyroid hormone is derived from what?

A

iodinated thyroglobulin

130
Q

_____________ cells produce calcitonin

A

parafollicular

131
Q

where do parafollicular cells lie?

A

in-between the follicles and make up the walls of the follicle

132
Q

what kind of role does calcitonin play?

A

in reducing the concentration of calcium in body fluids

133
Q

what does TH stand for?

A

thyroid hormone

134
Q

TH is made up of these 2 things:

A

Thyroxine (T4) AND Triiodothyronine (T3)

135
Q

another name for Thyroxine is…

A

T4

136
Q

another name for Triiodothyronine is…

A

T3

137
Q

T4 is produced by _____________

A

thyroid gland

138
Q

T3 is formed at ___________-

A

target tissue

139
Q

__ is converted into T3

A

T4

140
Q

the thyroid hormone increases what?

A

metabolism in most tissues by stimulating glucose oxidation

141
Q

the thyroid hormone can increase __________ in blood vessels

A

adrenergic receptors

142
Q

the thyroid hormone can regulate what?

A

tissue growth and development

143
Q

What is T4 bound to when it is transported to target tissues?

A

plasma proteins called thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG)

144
Q

falling levels of thyroxine triggers…

A

TSH release

145
Q

rising levels of thyroxine inhibits…

A

TSH release

146
Q

conditions in which there is _______________ requirements causes TRH release from hypothalamus

A

increased energy

147
Q

name the 3 examples of metabolic disturbances associated with thyroid gland activity

A

Myxedema
Cretinism
Grave’s disease

148
Q

Myxedema is a ______ disorder

A

hypothyroid

149
Q

If Myxedema is caused by a lack of iodine, what is the condition called?

A

endemic (colloidal) goiter

150
Q

what is Myxedema?

A

condition where colloid can be made by follicles but end up accumulating because the colloid cannot be iodinated to make functional hormone

151
Q

cretinism is _______ in infants

A

hypothyroidism

152
Q

Grave’s disease is ________________ pathology

A

hyperthyroid

153
Q

what kind of disease is Grave’s disease?

A

autoimmune disease

154
Q

Grave’s disease is associated with what?

A

abnormal antibodies that mimic TSH

155
Q

what is the main function of calcitonin?

A

lowers blood calcium levels

156
Q

calcitonin is ___________ to the effect of parathyroid hormone

A

antagonist

157
Q

calcitonin inhibits calcium release from bones by

A

osteoblast activity

158
Q

calcitonin can stimulate…

A

calcium uptake and incorporation

159
Q

calcium acts as a _______ signal for calcitonin release

A

humoral

160
Q

describe the structures of the parathyroid glands

A

2 pairs of glands in the posterior aspect of the thyroid gland

161
Q

______ screte PTH

A

chief cells

162
Q

what does PTH stand for?

A

parathyroid hormone

163
Q

the parathyroid hormone can control

A

calcium balance

164
Q

the parathyroid hormone is released in response to what?

A

falling blood calcium levels

165
Q

PTH stimulates _____ activity

A

osteoclast

166
Q

the osteoclast activity caused by PTH allows

A

digest bone matrix and releases calcium

167
Q

the parathyroid hormone enhances…

A

reabsorption by kidney tubules

168
Q

the parathyroid hormone increases calcium absorption by…

A

intestine

169
Q

the increased calcium absorption by the intestines stimulates….

A

conversion of vitamin D into active form

170
Q

T/F hyperparathyroidism is not rare

A

false

171
Q

what happens in hyperparathyroidism?

A

calcium is leached from bones and replaced by connective tissue

172
Q

hypoparathyroidism is a PTH _______

A

deficiency that increases NS excitability

173
Q

name the 2 endocrine adrenal glands

A

adrenal medulla

adrenal cortx

174
Q

the adrenal medulla acts part of the…

A

sympathetic NS

175
Q

the adrenal cortex is involved in responses to….

A

stressful conditions

176
Q

name the 3 zones of the adrenal cortex from closest to the medulla, out

A

zona reticularis
zona fasciculata
zona glomerulosa

177
Q

the zona reticularis releases…

A

gonadocorticoids which are involved in estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone

178
Q

the zona fasciculata releases…

A

glucocorticoids which is involved with cortisol

179
Q

the zona glomerulosa releases…

A

mineralocorticoids which is involved with aldosterone

180
Q

the adrenal cortex releases….

A

corticosteroids

181
Q

the corticosteroids are synthesized from…

A

cholesterol

182
Q

what does mineralocorticoids regulate?

A

electrolyte concentrations in extracellular fluid

183
Q

in mineralocorticoids, ______ is most abundant

A

aldosterone

184
Q

what does aldosterone do?

A

reduced excretion of sodium from the body and thus increases ADH levels

185
Q

mineralocorticoids stimulates reabsorption of sodium in the _________________

A

distal tubule of kidney

186
Q

there are ___ mechanisms controlling aldosterone secretion

A

4

187
Q

what happens during Renin-angiotensin mechanism?

A

JGA releases renin in response to blood pressure decrease, initiates cascade forming angiotensin II formation, angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone release from adrenal cortex

188
Q

aldosterone can be secreted through direct stimulation by….

A

plasma sodium and potassium ions

189
Q

aldosterone can be secreted due to high levels of…

A

ACTH

190
Q

describe importance of ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide)

A

when blood pressure is high, heart release ANP to inhibit renin and aldosterone secretion

191
Q

what do glucocorticoids influence?

A

metabolism and mediate response to stress

192
Q

name 3 glucocorticoids.

A

cortisol
cortisone
corticosterone

193
Q

only the _____ glucocorticoid is secreted in significant amounts

A

cortisol

194
Q

what is gluconeogenesis?

A

the primary effect of cortisol; conversion of fats into glucose

195
Q

Cushing’s disease results from…

A

excess cortisone

196
Q

what is Cushing’s disease characterized by?

A

persistent hyperglycemia

197
Q

name the symptoms of Cushing’s disease

A

loss of muscle and bone protein
water and salt retention
“moon” face
redistribution of body fat

198
Q

Addison’s disease is ______ disorder of adrenal cortex

A

hyposecretory

199
Q

name some of the symptoms of Addison’s disease

A

weight loss
reduced plasma glucose and sodium levels
severe dehydration and hypotension

200
Q

gonadocorticoids are primarily _________

A

androgens

201
Q

___________________ is only a fraction of gonadal sources

A

adrenal cortex secretion of sex hormones

202
Q

gonadocorticoids have a possible role in what?

A

puberty

203
Q

androstenedione is converted to

A

testosterone and dihydrotestosterone

204
Q

the adrenal medulla contain ____cells

A

chromaffin cells

205
Q

what are chromaffin cells?

A

modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons

206
Q

what do chromaffin cells secrete?

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine

207
Q

initial response to stress is mediated by

A

sympathetic NS

208
Q

activation of adrenal medulla and associated release of EPI and NE prolong what?

A

sympathetic response

209
Q

activation of adrenal medulla and associated release of EPI and NE can cause…

A

elevated BP and heart rate
mobilization of glucose
shunt blood from GI

210
Q

_______ contains both exocrine (GI enzymes) and endocrine cells

A

pancreas

211
Q

name the 2 populations that can be found in the pancreatic islets

A

alpha cells

beta cells

212
Q

what do alpha cells produce?

A

glucagons

213
Q

what do beta cells produce?

A

insulin

214
Q

insulin is a ______ hormone

A

hypoglycemic

215
Q

glucagon is a ________ hormone

A

hyperglycemic

216
Q

name the 3 effects of glucagon

A

breakdown of glycogen to glucose
synthesis of glucose from lactic acid, fatty acids, and amino acids
release of glucose from liver

217
Q

what can regulate glycogen?

A

humoral response to decreased circulating glucose

218
Q

name the 4 effects insulin has

A

lower blood glucose
alter protein and fat metabolism
inhibits breakdown of glycogen
triggers enzymatic activity

219
Q

insulin is able enhance __________ of glucose into body cell

A

membrane transport

220
Q

oxidation of glucose is able to produce…

A

ATP

221
Q

what can regulate insulin?

A

humoral response to increased circulating glucose

222
Q

what is diabetes mellitus?

A

hyposecretion or hypoactivity of insulin

223
Q

in diabetes mellitus, excessive hyperglycemia triggers what?

A

sympathetic response

224
Q

in lipidemia, why are fats mobilized?

A

to use as cellular food

225
Q

fatty acid metabolites accumulate as _______________

A

ketone bodies

226
Q

what is ketoacidosis?

A

accumulating of ketones and a drop in blood pH

227
Q

name the 3 signs of diabetes mellitis

A

polyuria
polydipsia
polyphagia

228
Q

in polyuria, excessive glucose in kidney filtrate acts as a what?

A

diuretic which inhibits water reabsorption

229
Q

in polyuria, increased urine output causes what?

A

dehydration and decreased blood volume

230
Q

in polyuria, electrolyte loss is associated with…

A

excretion of excess ketones

231
Q

describe polydipsia

A

dehydration stimulates thirst centers in brain

232
Q

describe polyfagia

A

glucose cannot be used because it cannot be absorbed by cells and this results in hunger

233
Q

Type I DM is named…

A

insulin dependent diabetes mellitus

234
Q

Type II DM is named….

A

non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus

235
Q

which diabetes mellitus is related with autoimmune destruction of beta cells

A

Type 1 IDDM

236
Q

which diabetes mellitus starts usually after age of 40

A

Type II NIDDM

237
Q

Type 1 IDDM usually has what kind onset?

A

juvenile onset

238
Q

which diabetes mellitus is related with lack of insulin activity?

A

Type 1 IDDM

239
Q

which type of diabetes mellitus is most common in 90% of cases?

A

Type 2 NIDDM

240
Q

what is the main characteristic of Type II NIDDM?

A

insulin is produced in inadequate quantities or with faulty receptors

241
Q

ovaries produce…

A

estrogens and progesterone

242
Q

the ovaries help regulate….

A

sexual maturation and menstrual cycle

243
Q

the testes produce….

A

testosterone

244
Q

the testes hep regulate….

A

sexual maturation and sex drive

245
Q

release of gonadal hormones is regulated by what?

A

gonadotropins

246
Q

the pineal gland can be found where?

A

floor of third ventricle within diencephalons

247
Q

the pineal gland’s primary secretory product is?

A

melatonin

248
Q

the pineal gland receives indirect inputs from?

A

visual system

249
Q

______ is large in children but decreases with age

A

thymus

250
Q

name the 2 hormonal products from the thymus that is important for T cell maturation

A

thymopoietin

thymosins

Anatomy Final (12 decks)

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