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BIO 446L > Endocrine System > Flashcards

Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

How do cells communicate?

A

Many adjacent cells form
communicating gap junctions that couple the cells and allow exchange of ions and small molecules. You can think of this as direct signaling.

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2
Q

Target cells

A

Cells bearing receptors for a specific ligand. There are about 25 families of receptors.

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3
Q

Types of signaling

A

Endocrine signaling, paracrine signaling, synaptic signaling, autocrine signaling, and juxtacrine signaling

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4
Q

Endocrine signaling

A

The signal molecules (here called hormones) are carried in the blood from their sources to target cells throughout the body.

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5
Q

Paracrine signaling

A

The chemical ligand diffuses in extracellular fluid but is rapidly metabolized so that its effect is only local on target cells near its source.

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6
Q

Synaptic signaling

A

A special kind of paracrine interaction, neurotransmitters act on
adjacent cells through special contact areas called synapses.

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7
Q

Autocrine signaling

A

Signals bind receptors on the same cells that produced the messenger molecule.

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8
Q

Juxtacrine signaling

A

Important in embryonic tissues, the signaling molecules are cell
membrane–bound proteins which bind surface receptors of the target cell when the two cells make direct physical contact.

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9
Q

Major Classes of Hormones

A

Peptides, Steroids, and Amino acid derivatives

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10
Q

Peptide synthesis

A

Synthesized as prohormones, requiring further processing (e.g. cleavage) to activate

Ex. Insulin, glucagon, prolactin, ACTH, gastrin parathyroid hormone

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11
Q

Steroid synthesis

A

Synthesized in a series of reactions from cholesterol

Ex. Cortisol, aldosterone, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone

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12
Q

Amino acid derivatives synthesis

A

Synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine

Ex. Adrenaline, thyroxin, triiodothyronine

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13
Q

Receptors

A

Many types of receptors are complex proteins that form
transmembrane structures. They communicate a signal from the outside of the cell to the inside, in various ways. This happens
when a ligand binds to the receptor on the outer surface of the cell membrane.

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14
Q

Major endocrine glands

A

Pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, and adrenal gland

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15
Q

Organs containing endocrine cells

A

Hypothalamus, skin, thymus, heart, liver, stomach, pancreas, small intestine, kidney, and gonads

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16
Q

Endocrine glands misc.

A

Secretory cells of endocrine glands release signaling molecules called hormones into nearby vascularized tissue for uptake distribution throughout the body.

Endocrine glands have no secretory duct as exocrine glands do.

Endocrine cells are typically of epithelial origin, and are grouped as cords or
clusters. Due to the circulatory system, hormones act on target cells at a distance.

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17
Q

Pituitary gland (hypophysis)

A

The pituitary gland is composed of an anterior and a posterior that is directly attached to the hypothalamus region of the brain by an infundibular stalk. The gland occupies a fossa of the sphenoid bone called the sella turcica.

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18
Q

Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

A

The pars nervosa and infundibular stalk; it is a downgrowth of the brain, attached to the hypothalamus by a narrow region called the infundibulum.

Resemble CNS tissue (neural origin)

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19
Q

Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)

A

Includes the large pars distalis and pars tuberalis that surrounds the infundibulum, and the thin pars intermedia adjacent to the pars nervosa.

Typically glandular (epithelial origin)

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20
Q

What are endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary called?

A

Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary are called acidophils, basophils, and chromophobes based on
their staining properties.

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21
Q

Somatotroph cells

A

Endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary that produce somatotropin (growth hormone)

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22
Q

Lactotrophs

A

Endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary that produce prolactin (PRL)

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23
Q

Gonadotroph cells

A

Endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary that produce follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)

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24
Q

Thyrotroph cells

A

Endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary that produce thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

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25
Q

Corticotroph cells

A

Endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary that synthesize pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) that is broken up to make adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and β-lipotropic hormone (LPH).

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26
Q

Hypothalamus

A

The hypothalamus is the coordinating center of the endocrine system.

The hypothalamus synthesizes and secretes neurohormones, which in turn stimulate/inhibit secretion of pituitary hormones. This hypothalamic-pituitary axis directly affects the thyroid gland, adrenal gland, and gonads, and contributes to growth, lactation, and water balance.

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27
Q

Hypothalamus input

A

It consolidates input signals from from cortical inputs,
autonomic function, environmental cues such as light and temperature, and peripheral endocrine feedback.

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28
Q

Hypothalamus output

A

It controls body temperature, hunger, aspects of parenting and attachment behaviors, thirst, fatigue, sleep, and
circadian rhythms.

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29
Q

Hypothalamus target

A

It delivers precise signals to the pituitary gland, which releases hormones influencing most endocrine systems.

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30
Q

Hypothalamic Hormone Axes

A

Hormone secretion is often coordinated among
endocrine organs in sets of feedback interactions in
these four neuroendocrine systems, divided into two
“paths”.

Hypothalamic–Neurohypophyseal system

Hypothalamic-Anterior Pituitary-Adrenal axis (HPA)

Hypothalamic-Anterior Pituitary-Thyroid axis (HPT)

Hypothalamic-Anterior Pituitary-Gonadal axis (HPG)

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31
Q

Hypothalamic-Neurohypophyseal tract

A

Consists of axons
extending from hypothalamic supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei,
through the infundibulum and into the pars nervosa of the posterior pituitary, where peptide hormones are released for capillary uptake.

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32
Q

Hypothalamic-Neurohypophyseal Hormones

A

Vasopressin/antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin

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33
Q

Vasopressin/antidiuretic hormone (ADH) function

A

Increases water permeability of renal collecting ducts

Produced in the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus

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34
Q

Oxytocin function

A

Stimulates contraction of mammary gland myoepithelial cells and uterine smooth muscle

Produced in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus

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35
Q

Hypothalamic-Hypophyseal Portal System

A

The hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system consists of two capillary networks connected by the hypophyseal portal vein; these are the primary and the secondary plexuses

These are important in carrying hypothalamic hormones to the anterior pituitary where they control the secretion of other hormones.

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36
Q

Hypothalamic hormones

A

These hypothalamic hormones (also called neurohormones or releasing hormones) regulate cells of the anterior pituitary. These are peptide hormones.

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Somatostatin/Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone

Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

Dopamine/Prolactin-inhibiting hormone

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

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37
Q

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

A

A hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the release of thyrotropin (TSH) from the anterior pituitary

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38
Q

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

A

A hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the release of both follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary

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39
Q

Somatostatin

A

Also called growth hormone-inhibiting hormone

Produced in the pancreatic islets

A hypothalamic hormone that inhibits the release of both somatotropin (GH) and thyrotropin (TSH) from the anterior pituitary

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40
Q

Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

A

A hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the release of somatotropin (GH) from the anterior pituitary

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41
Q

Dopamine

A

Also called prolactin-inhibiting hormone

A hypothalamic hormone that inhibits the release of prolactin (PRL) from the anterior pituitary

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42
Q

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

A

A hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the synthesis of pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and the release of both β-lipotropin (LPH) and corticotropin (ACTH) (adrenocorticotropin) from the anterior pituitary.

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43
Q

Hormones of Anterior Pituitary

A

Seven hormones are produced. Release of these hormones is stimulated by hypothalamic peptide hormones (“releasing” hormones).

Somatotropin (GH)

Prolactin (PRL)

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Thyrotropin (TSH)

Adrenal corticotropin (ACTH)

Lipotropin (LPH)

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44
Q

Somatotropin (GH)

A

An anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates growth in epiphyseal plates of long bones via insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) produced in the liver

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45
Q

Prolactin (PRL)

A

An anterior pituitary hormone that promotes milk secretion

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46
Q

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

A

An anterior pituitary hormone that promotes ovarian follicle development and estrogen secretion in women and spermatogenesis in men

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47
Q

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

A

An anterior pituitary hormone that promotes ovarian follicle maturation and progesterone secretion in women and interstitial cell androgen secretion in men (causes testis to make testosterone)

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48
Q

Thyrotropin (TSH)

A

An anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates thyroid hormone synthesis, storage, and liberation

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49
Q

Adrenal corticotropin (ACTH)

A

An anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates the secretion of adrenal cortex hormones

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50
Q

Lipotropin (LPH)

A

An anterior pituitary hormone that helps regulate lipid metabolism

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51
Q

Feedback Loops: Regulation

A

Feedback relationship between the hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary, and its target organs is shown, using the thyroid as an example.

  1. Stimulus (e.g. low body temp) causes the hypothalamus to secrete thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which acts on the anterior pituitary.
  2. Thyrotropic cells in the anterior pituitary release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
  3. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates the follicular cells of the thyroid gland to release thyroid hormone (TH).
  4. Thyroid hormone (TH) stimulates target cells to increase metabolic activities, resulting in an increase in basal body temperature.
  5. Increased temperature is detected by the hypothalamus, and secretion of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is inhibited. TH also block TRH receptors, inhibiting the release of TSH
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52
Q

Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands

A

The paired adrenal
glands are located at
the superior pole of
each kidney and each
consists of

  1. An outer cortex that
    produces a variety of
    steroid hormones
  2. An inner medulla
    that produces
    epinephrine and
    norepinephrine.
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53
Q

Adrenal Medulla

A

The hormone-secreting
cells of the adrenal
medulla are chromaffin
cells, which resemble
sympathetic neurons.
These make epinephrine
or norepinephrine. These
are amine-type hormones.

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54
Q

Adrenal medulla hormones

A

Epinephrine and norepinephrine

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55
Q

Epinephrine

A

A hormone produced in the adrenal medulla that increases heart rate and blood pressure

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56
Q

Norepinephrine

A

A hormone produced in the adrenal medulla that constricts vessels; increases heart rate and blood pressure

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57
Q

Adrenal cortex hormones

A

Mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and weak androgens

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58
Q

Mineralocorticoids

A

Hormones produced in the adrenal cortex that stimulate renal reabsorption of water and Na+ and secretion of K+ to maintain salt and water balance

Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid that is the major regulator of salt balance

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59
Q

Glucocorticoids

A

Hormones produced in the adrenal cortex that influence carbohydrate metabolism and suppress immune cell activities

Cortisol is a glucocorticoid which affects carbohydrate metabolism by stimulating gluconeogenesis an glycogen synthesis in the liver

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60
Q

Weak androgens

A

Hormones produced in the adrenal cortex that are precursors for testosterone and estrogen

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61
Q

Addison’s disease

A

Also called adrenal cortical insufficiency and is a disorder, usually autoimmune
in origin, which causes degeneration in any layer of adrenal cortex, with concomitant loss of the associated hormones: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, or androgen.

Symptoms generally come on slowly and may include abdominal pain, weakness, and weight loss. Darkening of the skin in certain areas may also occur.

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62
Q

Two main products of the
Pancreas

A
  1. Hormones
  2. Digestive enzymes
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63
Q

Pancreatic Islets

A

Clumped masses of pale-staining endocrine cells embedded in the exocrine acinar tissue of the pancreas.

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64
Q

Pancreatic Islets hormones

A

Glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptides

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65
Q

Glucagon

A

A hormone produced in the pancreatic islets that acts on several tissues to make energy stored in glycogen and fat available through glycogenolysis and lipolysis also increases blood glucose content

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66
Q

Insulin

A

A hormone produced in the pancreatic islets that acts on several tissues to cause entry of glucose into cells and promotes a decrease in blood glucose content

Made by β cells

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67
Q

Somatostatin

A

A hormone produced in the pancreatic islets that inhibits the release of other islet cell hormones through local paracrine action. Inhibits the release of somatotropin (GH) and thyrotropin (TSH) in anterior pituitary and HCl secretion by gastric parietal cells

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68
Q

Pancreatic polypeptides

A

A hormone produced in the pancreatic islets that stimulates activity of gastric chief cells.

Inhibits bile secretion, pancreatic enzyme and bicarbonate secretion, and intestinal motility

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69
Q

Diabetes mellitus

A

Characterized by loss of effect of insulin and thus failure of cells to take up glucose, leading to elevated blood sugar or hyperglycemia.

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70
Q

Type 1 diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

(IDDM)

A

Caused by loss of the β cells (which make insulin) from autoimmune destruction and is treated by regular injections of insulin.

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71
Q

Type 2 diabetes or non–insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus (NIDDM)

A

β cells are present but fail to produce adequate levels of insulin in response to hyperglycemia and the peripheral target cells resist or no longer respond
to the hormone. Type 2 diabetes commonly occurs with obesity, and the multifactorial genetic components are poorly understood.

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72
Q

D cells

A

An enteroendocrine cell

Location: Pylorus, duodenum, and pancreatic islets

Hormone produced: Somatostatin

Inhibits: Secretion from other DNES (diffuse
neuroendocrine system) cells nearby

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73
Q

Thyroid gland

A

The thyroid is a highly
vascular, butterfly-shaped gland surrounding the
anterior surface of the
trachea just below the
larynx.

The two major thyroid
hormones are thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3),
which are involved in
metabolism

A third is calcitonin,
which regulates blood
calcium levels. Calcitonin produced by parafollicular cells

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74
Q

Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)

A

Increase metabolic rate

Produced by follicular cells

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75
Q

Calcitonin

A

A thyroid hormone that lowers blood Ca++ levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity

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76
Q

Graves disease

A

An autoimmune disorder in which antibodies produce chronic stimulation of the follicular cells and release of thyroid hormones (hyperthyroidism), which
causes a hypermetabolic state marked by weight loss, nervousness, sweating, heat intolerance, and other features.

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77
Q

Hypothyroidism

A

With reduced thyroid hormone levels, can
be caused by local inflammation (thyroiditis) or inadequate secretion of TSH by the anterior pituitary gland and is often
manifested by tiredness, weight gain, intolerance of cold, and decreased ability to concentrate.

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78
Q

Parathyroid glands

A

The parathyroid glands are four small nodules normally embedded in the capsule on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. These consist of principal cells that secrete parathyroid
hormone (PTH) and raise blood Ca++ levels.

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79
Q

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

A

Produced by chief cells, this hormone raises blood Ca++ levels by stimulating osteoclast activity

In the renal cortex, it stimulates Ca++ reabsorption

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80
Q

Principal (Chief) cells

A

Produces parathyroid hormone (PTH)

The endocrine cells of the parathyroid glands they have cytoplasmic granules that contain the parathyroid hormone (PTH), a polypeptide, and important regulator of blood calcium levels.

81
Q

Hypoparathyroidism

A

Diminished secretion of PTH can cause bones to become more mineralized and denser, and striated muscle to exhibit abnormal contractions due to inadequate calcium ion concentrations.

82
Q

Hyperparathyroidism

A

Excessive PTH produced

Stimulates osteoclast number and activity, leading to increased levels of blood calcium Ca++ that can be deposited pathologically in cartilage, arteries, or the kidneys.

83
Q

Pineal gland

A

The pineal gland (epiphysis cerebri) is unique in transducing sensory
input from light into effects on hormones. Pinealocytes, which are the pineal cells, are modified neurons of the brain that secrete the
neurohormone melatonin, which is amine-derived.

84
Q

Melatonin

A

Produced by the pinealocytes of the pineal gland this hormone regulates circadian rhythms

85
Q

Acromegaly is produced by overproduction of products by the cell type known as

A

Somatotrophs

86
Q

What hormone do somatotrophic cells produce?

A

Growth hormone

87
Q

What hormone do lactotrophic cells produce?

A

Prolactin

88
Q

What hormone do gonadotrophic cells produce?

A

FSH, ICSH

89
Q

What hormone do thyrotrophic cells produce?

A

Thyroid hormone

90
Q

What hormone do corticotrophic cells produce?

A

Lipotropin (LPH)

91
Q

Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla produce epinephrine and norepinephrine. The cells are functionally associated with the

A

Sympathetic nervous system

92
Q

Which of these diseases is associated with obesity related to the failure of beta cells to produce sufficient insulin?

A

Type 2 Diabetes

93
Q

With which organs are enteroendocrine cells associated?

A

Ileum, Pancreatic islets, and Duodenum

94
Q

Which hormone stimulates growth in epiphyseal plates

A

Somatotropin

95
Q

Which hormone promotes milk secretion

A

Prolactin

96
Q

Which hormone promotes androgen secretion in men

A

ICSH

97
Q

Which hormone stimulates secretion of adrenal cortex hormones

A

ACTH

98
Q

Which hormone increases water permeability in kidney

A

Anti-diuretic hormone

99
Q

Which hormone stimulates mammary gland myoepithelial cells.

A

Oxytocin

100
Q

Which one of these neuroendocrine axes is associated with a reaction to stress?

A

Hypothalamic-Anterior Pituitary-Adrenal axis (HPA)

101
Q

The hormones produced by the hypothalamus are

A

Peptides

102
Q

What is the role of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system?

A

It distributes releasing hormones produced by the hypothalamus to secretory cells in the anterior pituitary.

103
Q

Which one of these parts of the brain regulates activities of the autonomic nervous system?

A

Hypothalamus

104
Q

Which part of the brain manages the endocrine system?

A

Hypothalamus

105
Q

Which of these hypothalamic hormones produced by the hypothalamus is inhibitory?

A

Dopamine and Somatostatin

106
Q

Which is true of the pars distalis of the anterior pituitary gland?

A

It is highly vascularized.

107
Q

What stimulates the pinealocytes to release melatonin?

A

Input from the retina.

108
Q

The sella turcica is a cavity in which the hypophysis sits. In which bone is the sella turcica found?

A

Sphenoid bone.

109
Q

The hormones vasopressin (ADH) and oxytocin are produced in the hypothalamus by certain neurosecretory cells. Into which organ do the axons of these cells release the hormones ?

A

Pars nervosa of the posterior pituitary gland.

110
Q

Hypothalamic-Anterior Pituitary-Adrenal axis (HPA)

A

Reactions to stress. Regulates digestion, the immune system,
mood and emotions, sexuality, and energy storage and expenditure.

111
Q

Hypothalamic-Anterior Pituitary-Thyroid axis (HPT)

A

Metabolism, including bone health.

112
Q

Hypothalamic-Anterior Pituitary-Gonadal axis (HPG)

A

Reproductive and immune systems.

113
Q

Reversed prompt

Many adjacent cells form
communicating gap junctions that couple the cells and allow exchange of ions and small molecules. You can think of this as direct signaling.

A

How do cells communicate?

114
Q

Reversed prompt

Cells bearing receptors for a specific ligand. There are about 25 families of receptors.

A

Target cells

115
Q

Reversed prompt

Endocrine signaling, paracrine signaling, synaptic signaling, autocrine signaling, and juxtacrine signaling

A

Types of signaling

116
Q

Reversed prompt

The signal molecules (here called hormones) are carried in the blood from their sources to target cells throughout the body.

A

Endocrine signaling

117
Q

Reversed prompt

The chemical ligand diffuses in extracellular fluid but is rapidly metabolized so that its effect is only local on target cells near its source.

A

Paracrine signaling

118
Q

Reversed prompt

A special kind of paracrine interaction, neurotransmitters act on
adjacent cells through special contact areas called synapses.

A

Synaptic signaling

119
Q

Reversed prompt

Signals bind receptors on the same cells that produced the messenger molecule.

A

Autocrine signaling

120
Q

Reversed prompt

Important in embryonic tissues, the signaling molecules are cell
membrane–bound proteins which bind surface receptors of the target cell when the two cells make direct physical contact.

A

Juxtacrine signaling

121
Q

Reversed prompt

Peptides, Steroids, and Amino acid derivatives

A

Major Classes of Hormones

122
Q

Reversed prompt

Synthesized as prohormones, requiring further processing (e.g. cleavage) to activate

Ex. Insulin, glucagon, prolactin, ACTH, gastrin parathyroid hormone

A

Peptide synthesis

123
Q

Reversed prompt

Synthesized in a series of reactions from cholesterol

Ex. Cortisol, aldosterone, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone

A

Steroid synthesis

124
Q

Reversed prompt

Synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine

Ex. Adrenaline, thyroxin, triiodothyronine

A

Amino acid derivatives synthesis

125
Q

Reversed prompt

Many types of receptors are complex proteins that form
transmembrane structures. They communicate a signal from the outside of the cell to the inside, in various ways. This happens
when a ligand binds to the receptor on the outer surface of the cell membrane.

A

Receptors

126
Q

Reversed prompt

Pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, and adrenal gland

A

Major endocrine glands

127
Q

Reversed prompt

Hypothalamus, skin, thymus, heart, liver, stomach, pancreas, small intestine, kidney, and gonads

A

Organs containing endocrine cells

128
Q

Reversed prompt

Secretory cells of endocrine glands release signaling molecules called hormones into nearby vascularized tissue for uptake distribution throughout the body.

Endocrine glands have no secretory duct as exocrine glands do.

Endocrine cells are typically of epithelial origin, and are grouped as cords or
clusters. Due to the circulatory system, hormones act on target cells at a distance.

A

Endocrine glands misc.

129
Q

Reversed prompt

The pituitary gland is composed of an anterior and a posterior that is directly attached to the hypothalamus region of the brain by an infundibular stalk. The gland occupies a fossa of the sphenoid bone called the sella turcica.

A

Pituitary gland (hypophysis)

130
Q

Reversed prompt

The pars nervosa and infundibular stalk; it is a downgrowth of the brain, attached to the hypothalamus by a narrow region called the infundibulum.

Resemble CNS tissue (neural origin)

A

Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

131
Q

Reversed prompt

Includes the large pars distalis and pars tuberalis that surrounds the infundibulum, and the thin pars intermedia adjacent to the pars nervosa.

Typically glandular (epithelial origin)

A

Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)

132
Q

Reversed prompt

Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary are called acidophils, basophils, and chromophobes based on
their staining properties.

A

What are endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary called?

133
Q

Reversed prompt

Endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary that produce somatotropin (growth hormone)

A

Somatotroph cells

134
Q

Reversed prompt

Endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary that produce prolactin (PRL)

A

Lactotrophs

135
Q

Reversed prompt

Endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary that produce follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)

A

Gonadotroph cells

136
Q

Reversed prompt

Endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary that produce thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

A

Thyrotroph cells

137
Q

Reversed prompt

Endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary that synthesize pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) that is broken up to make adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and β-lipotropic hormone (LPH).

A

Corticotroph cells

138
Q

Reversed prompt

The hypothalamus is the coordinating center of the endocrine system.

The hypothalamus synthesizes and secretes neurohormones, which in turn stimulate/inhibit secretion of pituitary hormones. This hypothalamic-pituitary axis directly affects the thyroid gland, adrenal gland, and gonads, and contributes to growth, lactation, and water balance.

A

Hypothalamus

139
Q

Reversed prompt

It consolidates input signals from from cortical inputs,
autonomic function, environmental cues such as light and temperature, and peripheral endocrine feedback.

A

Hypothalamus input

140
Q

Reversed prompt

It controls body temperature, hunger, aspects of parenting and attachment behaviors, thirst, fatigue, sleep, and
circadian rhythms.

A

Hypothalamus output

141
Q

Reversed prompt

It delivers precise signals to the pituitary gland, which releases hormones influencing most endocrine systems.

A

Hypothalamus target

142
Q

Reversed prompt

Hormone secretion is often coordinated among
endocrine organs in sets of feedback interactions in
these four neuroendocrine systems, divided into two
“paths”.

Hypothalamic–Neurohypophyseal system

Hypothalamic-Anterior Pituitary-Adrenal axis (HPA)

Hypothalamic-Anterior Pituitary-Thyroid axis (HPT)

Hypothalamic-Anterior Pituitary-Gonadal axis (HPG)

A

Hypothalamic Hormone Axes

143
Q

Reversed prompt

Consists of axons
extending from hypothalamic supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei,
through the infundibulum and into the pars nervosa of the posterior pituitary, where peptide hormones are released for capillary uptake.

A

Hypothalamic-Neurohypophyseal tract

144
Q

Reversed prompt

Vasopressin/antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin

A

Hypothalamic-Neurohypophyseal Hormones

145
Q

Reversed prompt

Increases water permeability of renal collecting ducts

Produced in the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus

A

Vasopressin/antidiuretic hormone (ADH) function

146
Q

Reversed prompt

Stimulates contraction of mammary gland myoepithelial cells and uterine smooth muscle

Produced in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus

A

Oxytocin function

147
Q

Reversed prompt

The hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system consists of two capillary networks connected by the hypophyseal portal vein; these are the primary and the secondary plexuses

These are important in carrying hypothalamic hormones to the anterior pituitary where they control the secretion of other hormones.

A

Hypothalamic-Hypophyseal Portal System

148
Q

Reversed prompt

These hypothalamic hormones (also called neurohormones or releasing hormones) regulate cells of the anterior pituitary. These are peptide hormones.

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Somatostatin/Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone

Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

Dopamine/Prolactin-inhibiting hormone

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

A

Hypothalamic hormones

149
Q

Reversed prompt

A hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the release of thyrotropin (TSH) from the anterior pituitary

A

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

150
Q

Reversed prompt

A hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the release of both follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary

A

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

151
Q

Reversed prompt

Also called growth hormone-inhibiting hormone

Produced in the pancreatic islets

A hypothalamic hormone that inhibits the release of both somatotropin (GH) and thyrotropin (TSH) from the anterior pituitary

A

Somatostatin

152
Q

Reversed prompt

A hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the release of somatotropin (GH) from the anterior pituitary

A

Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

153
Q

Reversed prompt

Also called prolactin-inhibiting hormone

A hypothalamic hormone that inhibits the release of prolactin (PRL) from the anterior pituitary

A

Dopamine

154
Q

Reversed prompt

A hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the synthesis of pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and the release of both β-lipotropin (LPH) and corticotropin (ACTH) (adrenocorticotropin) from the anterior pituitary.

A

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

155
Q

Reversed prompt

Seven hormones are produced. Release of these hormones is stimulated by hypothalamic peptide hormones (“releasing” hormones).

Somatotropin (GH)

Prolactin (PRL)

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Thyrotropin (TSH)

Adrenal corticotropin (ACTH)

Lipotropin (LPH)

A

Hormones of Anterior Pituitary

156
Q

Reversed prompt

An anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates growth in epiphyseal plates of long bones via insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) produced in the liver

A

Somatotropin (GH)

157
Q

Reversed prompt

An anterior pituitary hormone that promotes milk secretion

A

Prolactin (PRL)

158
Q

Reversed prompt

An anterior pituitary hormone that promotes ovarian follicle development and estrogen secretion in women and spermatogenesis in men

A

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

159
Q

Reversed prompt

An anterior pituitary hormone that promotes ovarian follicle maturation and progesterone secretion in women and interstitial cell androgen secretion in men (causes testis to make testosterone)

A

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

160
Q

Reversed prompt

An anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates thyroid hormone synthesis, storage, and liberation

A

Thyrotropin (TSH)

161
Q

Reversed prompt

An anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates the secretion of adrenal cortex hormones

A

Adrenal corticotropin (ACTH)

162
Q

Reversed prompt

An anterior pituitary hormone that helps regulate lipid metabolism

A

Lipotropin (LPH)

163
Q

Reversed prompt

Feedback relationship between the hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary, and its target organs is shown, using the thyroid as an example.

  1. Stimulus (e.g. low body temp) causes the hypothalamus to secrete thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which acts on the anterior pituitary.
  2. Thyrotropic cells in the anterior pituitary release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
  3. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates the follicular cells of the thyroid gland to release thyroid hormone (TH).
  4. Thyroid hormone (TH) stimulates target cells to increase metabolic activities, resulting in an increase in basal body temperature.
  5. Increased temperature is detected by the hypothalamus, and secretion of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is inhibited. TH also block TRH receptors, inhibiting the release of TSH
A

Feedback Loops: Regulation

164
Q

Reversed prompt

The paired adrenal
glands are located at
the superior pole of
each kidney and each
consists of

  1. An outer cortex that
    produces a variety of
    steroid hormones
  2. An inner medulla
    that produces
    epinephrine and
    norepinephrine.
A

Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands

165
Q

Reversed prompt

The hormone-secreting
cells of the adrenal
medulla are chromaffin
cells, which resemble
sympathetic neurons.
These make epinephrine
or norepinephrine. These
are amine-type hormones.

A

Adrenal Medulla

166
Q

Reversed prompt

Epinephrine and norepinephrine

A

Adrenal medulla hormones

167
Q

Reversed prompt

A hormone produced in the adrenal medulla that increases heart rate and blood pressure

A

Epinephrine

168
Q

Reversed prompt

A hormone produced in the adrenal medulla that constricts vessels; increases heart rate and blood pressure

A

Norepinephrine

169
Q

Reversed prompt

Mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and weak androgens

A

Adrenal cortex hormones

170
Q

Reversed prompt

Hormones produced in the adrenal cortex that stimulate renal reabsorption of water and Na+ and secretion of K+ to maintain salt and water balance

Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid that is the major regulator of salt balance

A

Mineralocorticoids

171
Q

Reversed prompt

Hormones produced in the adrenal cortex that influence carbohydrate metabolism and suppress immune cell activities

Cortisol is a glucocorticoid which affects carbohydrate metabolism by stimulating gluconeogenesis an glycogen synthesis in the liver

A

Glucocorticoids

172
Q

Reversed prompt

Hormones produced in the adrenal cortex that are precursors for testosterone and estrogen

A

Weak androgens

173
Q

Reversed prompt

Also called adrenal cortical insufficiency and is a disorder, usually autoimmune
in origin, which causes degeneration in any layer of adrenal cortex, with concomitant loss of the associated hormones: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, or androgen.

Symptoms generally come on slowly and may include abdominal pain, weakness, and weight loss. Darkening of the skin in certain areas may also occur.

A

Addison’s disease

174
Q

Reversed prompt

  1. Hormones
  2. Digestive enzymes
A

Two main products of the
Pancreas

175
Q

Reversed prompt

Clumped masses of pale-staining endocrine cells embedded in the exocrine acinar tissue of the pancreas.

A

Pancreatic Islets

176
Q

Reversed prompt

Glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptides

A

Pancreatic Islets hormones

177
Q

Reversed prompt

A hormone produced in the pancreatic islets that acts on several tissues to make energy stored in glycogen and fat available through glycogenolysis and lipolysis also increases blood glucose content

A

Glucagon

178
Q

Reversed prompt

A hormone produced in the pancreatic islets that acts on several tissues to cause entry of glucose into cells and promotes a decrease in blood glucose content

Made by β cells

A

Insulin

179
Q

Reversed prompt

A hormone produced in the pancreatic islets that inhibits the release of other islet cell hormones through local paracrine action. Inhibits the release of somatotropin (GH) and thyrotropin (TSH) in anterior pituitary and HCl secretion by gastric parietal cells

A

Somatostatin

180
Q

Reversed prompt

A hormone produced in the pancreatic islets that stimulates activity of gastric chief cells.

Inhibits bile secretion, pancreatic enzyme and bicarbonate secretion, and intestinal motility

A

Pancreatic polypeptides

181
Q

Reversed prompt

Characterized by loss of effect of insulin and thus failure of cells to take up glucose, leading to elevated blood sugar or hyperglycemia.

A

Diabetes mellitus

182
Q

Reversed prompt

Caused by loss of the β cells (which make insulin) from autoimmune destruction and is treated by regular injections of insulin.

A

Type 1 diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

(IDDM)

183
Q

Reversed prompt

β cells are present but fail to produce adequate levels of insulin in response to hyperglycemia and the peripheral target cells resist or no longer respond
to the hormone. Type 2 diabetes commonly occurs with obesity, and the multifactorial genetic components are poorly understood.

A

Type 2 diabetes or non–insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus (NIDDM)

184
Q

Reversed prompt

An enteroendocrine cell

Location: Pylorus, duodenum, and pancreatic islets

Hormone produced: Somatostatin

Inhibits: Secretion from other DNES (diffuse
neuroendocrine system) cells nearby

A

D cells

185
Q

Reversed prompt

The thyroid is a highly
vascular, butterfly-shaped gland surrounding the
anterior surface of the
trachea just below the
larynx.

The two major thyroid
hormones are thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3),
which are involved in
metabolism

A third is calcitonin,
which regulates blood
calcium levels. Calcitonin produced by parafollicular cells

A

Thyroid gland

186
Q

Reversed prompt

Increase metabolic rate

Produced by follicular cells

A

Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)

187
Q

Reversed prompt

A thyroid hormone that lowers blood Ca++ levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity

A

Calcitonin

188
Q

Reversed prompt

An autoimmune disorder in which antibodies produce chronic stimulation of the follicular cells and release of thyroid hormones (hyperthyroidism), which
causes a hypermetabolic state marked by weight loss, nervousness, sweating, heat intolerance, and other features.

A

Graves disease

189
Q

Reversed prompt

With reduced thyroid hormone levels, can
be caused by local inflammation (thyroiditis) or inadequate secretion of TSH by the anterior pituitary gland and is often
manifested by tiredness, weight gain, intolerance of cold, and decreased ability to concentrate.

A

Hypothyroidism

190
Q

Reversed prompt

The parathyroid glands are four small nodules normally embedded in the capsule on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. These consist of principal cells that secrete parathyroid
hormone (PTH) and raise blood Ca++ levels.

A

Parathyroid glands

191
Q

Reversed prompt

Produced by chief cells, this hormone raises blood Ca++ levels by stimulating osteoclast activity

In the renal cortex, it stimulates Ca++ reabsorption

A

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

192
Q

Reversed prompt

Produces parathyroid hormone (PTH)

The endocrine cells of the parathyroid glands they have cytoplasmic granules that contain the parathyroid hormone (PTH), a polypeptide, and important regulator of blood calcium levels.

A

Principal (Chief) cells

193
Q

Reversed prompt

Diminished secretion of PTH can cause bones to become more mineralized and denser, and striated muscle to exhibit abnormal contractions due to inadequate calcium ion concentrations.

A

Hypoparathyroidism

194
Q

Reversed prompt

Excessive PTH produced

Stimulates osteoclast number and activity, leading to increased levels of blood calcium Ca++ that can be deposited pathologically in cartilage, arteries, or the kidneys.

A

Hyperparathyroidism

195
Q

Reversed prompt

The pineal gland (epiphysis cerebri) is unique in transducing sensory
input from light into effects on hormones. Pinealocytes, which are the pineal cells, are modified neurons of the brain that secrete the
neurohormone melatonin, which is amine-derived.

A

Pineal gland

196
Q

Reversed prompt

Produced by the pinealocytes of the pineal gland this hormone regulates circadian rhythms

A

Melatonin

197
Q

Reversed prompt

Reactions to stress. Regulates digestion, the immune system,
mood and emotions, sexuality, and energy storage and expenditure.

A

Hypothalamic-Anterior Pituitary-Adrenal axis (HPA)

198
Q

Reversed prompt

Metabolism, including bone health.

A

Hypothalamic-Anterior Pituitary-Thyroid axis (HPT)

199
Q

Reversed prompt

Reproductive and immune systems.

A

Hypothalamic-Anterior Pituitary-Gonadal axis (HPG)

BIO 446L (22 decks)

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