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PMP101 - Health, Disease and Patient > Endocrine - Overview of hormones > Flashcards

Endocrine - Overview of hormones Flashcards

1
Q

What are the different types of intercellular messenger systems?

A

*neurotransmission
*neuronendocrine signalling
*endocrine signalling
*paracrine signalling
*autocrine signalling (self signalling)

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2
Q

What are some examples of neurotransmitters?

A

Acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and GABA

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3
Q

What are some examples of neuroendocrine hormones?

A

Oxytocin, vasopressin (ADH), and releasing hormones
from the hypothalamus (e.g., CRH, TRH)

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4
Q

What are some examples of endocrine hormones?

A

insulin, thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), cortisol, and
sex hormones (oestrogen, testosterone)

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5
Q

What are some examples of paracrine signalling molecules?

A

growth factors (e.g., VEGF), cytokines (e.g.,
interleukins), and local mediators like nitric oxide

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6
Q

What are some examples of autocrine signalling molecules?

A

*cytokines
*prostaglandins and growth factors

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7
Q

What are the endocrine’s system main functions?

A

*homeostasis
*growth and development
*stress
*metabolism
*reproduction

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8
Q

What are the key components of the endocrine system?

A

*glands (specialised cells that release hormones)
*hormones (chemical messengers released into bloodstream)
*receptors (proteins that bind to specific hormones)

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9
Q

What hormones regulate metabolism?

A

Thyroid hormones = T3 AND T4

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10
Q

What hormones regulate growth and development?

A

*Growth Hormone (GH)

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11
Q

What hormones do homeostasis?

A

*insulin and glugacon from pancreas regulate blood glucose levels

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12
Q

What hormones release a stress response?

A

Cortisol from the adrenal cortex helps the body manage stress.

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13
Q

What ways are hormones differentiated?

A

*structural (chemical) differences = distinguish the synthesis, storage, transportation and biological functions

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14
Q

What are the hormone types?

A

*peptide hormones
*steroidal hormones
*amino acid derived hormone
*eicosanoids

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15
Q

Where are peptide hormones secreted from?

A

hypothalamus, pituitary, pancreas and GIT

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16
Q

What is the structure and some examples of peptide hormones?

A

*Structure: Chains of amino acids.
*Examples: Insulin, glucagon, growth hormone (GH), oxytocin, antidiuretic
hormone (ADH).

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17
Q

What is the structure and some examples of steroidal hormones?

A

*Structure: Derived from cholesterol and has a characteristic four-ring structure.
*Examples: Cortisol, aldosterone, oestrogen, testosterone, progesterone

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18
Q

What is the structure and some examples of the amino acid derived hormones?

A

*Structure: Derived from single amino acids, such as tyrosine or tryptophan.
*Examples: Thyroid hormones (thyroxine [T4], triiodothyronine [T3]),
adrenaline (epinephrine), noradrenaline (norepinephrine), melatonin.

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19
Q

What is the structure and some examples of eiconsanoid hormones?

A

*Structure: Derived from arachidonic acid, a 20-carbon fatty acid.
*Examples: Prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes.

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20
Q

What is the peptide hormone target?

A

*G-protein on the cell membrane

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21
Q

What is the steroidal hormone target

A

*acts on inner receptors = cytosolic receptor

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22
Q

What are the types of steroid hormones and their receptors?

A

1.Glucocorticoids
* Examples: Cortisol, corticosterone.
* Receptor: Glucocorticoid receptor (GR)
2.Mineralocorticoids
* Examples: Aldosterone.
* Receptor: Mineralocorticoid receptor (MR)
3.Androgens
* Examples: Testosterone, and dihydrotestosterone (DHT).
* Receptor: Androgen receptor (AR)
4.Oestrogens
* Examples: Oestradiol, oestrone, oestriol.
* Receptor: Oestrogen receptors (ERα and ERβ)
5.Progestogens
* Examples: Progesterone.
* Receptor: Progesterone receptor (PR).

23
Q

What cells do glucocorticoids target? + function

A

Target Cells: Almost all body cells, including liver, muscle, adipose tissue, and immune cells.
Function: Regulate metabolism, reduce inflammation, and help the body respond to stress. In the liver, they stimulate gluconeogenesis. In the immune system, they inhibit inflammation

24
Q

What are the target cells and function of mineralocorticoids?

A

Target Cells: Kidney cells (primarily in the distal tubules and collecting
ducts), as well as cells in the colon, salivary glands, and sweat glands.
* Function: Regulate sodium and potassium balance by increasing sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidneys, thereby influencing blood pressure and fluid balance

25
Q

What are the target cells and function of androgens?

A
  • Target Cells: Reproductive organs (e.g., testes, prostate), muscle, bone,
    skin, and the brain.
  • Function: Promote development and maintenance of male
    characteristics, increase muscle mass and strength, and influence libido
    and spermatogenesis
26
Q

What are the target cells and function of oestrogen?

A
  • Target Cells: Reproductive organs (e.g., ovaries, uterus), breast tissue,
    bone, cardiovascular system, and brain.
  • Function: Regulate development and maintenance of female
    reproductive tissues, influence menstrual cycle and pregnancy, maintain
    bone density, and protect cardiovascular health
27
Q

What are the target cells and functions of progestogens?

A
  • Target Cells: Uterus, mammary glands, brain, and other tissues.
  • Function: Prepare and maintain the uterus for pregnancy, regulate menstrual cycle and influence mammary gland development
28
Q

What is the simple feedback axis in a nutshell?

A

stimulus responds to need
= if cold, turns heater on, if overheats, turn heater off

29
Q

What is the hypothalamus-pituitary axis (HPA)?

A

The Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axis is a complex set of interactions between the
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and various target endocrine glands. This axis plays a
critical role in regulating hormone production and maintaining homeostasis

30
Q

What is the neuroendocrine reflex?

A

Neuroendocrine reflexes involve the integration of neural and endocrine responses to
stimuli. These reflexes ensure a rapid and coordinated response to maintain
homeostasis.

31
Q

What is an example of the neuroendocrine reflex?

A

*Example: The stress response.
* Stimulus: Perceived threat.
* Neural Response: The hypothalamus receives signals and activates the
sympathetic nervous system.
* Endocrine Response: The hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing
hormone (CRH), stimulating the anterior pituitary to release ACTH, which
in turn stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol. Cortisol helps the
body manage stress by increasing glucose availability, suppressing the
immune response, and other actions.

32
Q

What is the circadian rhythms?

A

Circadian rhythms are 24-hour cycles in physiological processes regulated by an
internal biological clock, primarily located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the
hypothalamus. These rhythms influence sleep-wake cycles, hormone release, and
other bodily functions

33
Q

What is the diurnal rhythm?

A
  • Diurnal Rhythms: These are circadian rhythms synchronised with the day-night
    cycle.
  • Sleep-Wake Cycle: The release of melatonin by the pineal gland is highest
    at night, promoting sleep. Cortisol levels peak in the early morning,
    preparing the body for wakefulness and activity
34
Q

How are cortisol, melatonin and GH affected by diurnal rhythm?

A
  • Cortisol: Peaks in the early morning, declines throughout the day, and is
    lowest at midnight.
  • Melatonin: Increases in the evening, peaks during the night, and decreases in the morning
  • Growth Hormone: Secreted in pulses, with the largest release occurring
    shortly after the onset of sleep
35
Q

What is the enzymatic processes (metabolism of hormones)?

A
  • Largely in blood, liver and kidney and some in target
    cells/tissues/organs
    *Excreted in urine
36
Q

Why do endocrine disorders happen?

A

Endocrine disorders arise from the dysfunction of endocrine glands, leading to either hypo- or hypersecretion of hormones

37
Q

What do ectopic hormonal disorders arise from?

A

Ectopic hormonal disorders arise when hormones are secreted by non-endocrine
tissues. This can lead to secondary hormonal imbalances, as the ectopic source
overrides normal regulatory mechanisms. Such conditions are often associated with
malignancies but can also be caused by benign tumours or hyper-plastic tissues.

38
Q

What are the common sources and effects of ectopic ACTH syndrome?

A

Common Sources: Small cell lung carcinoma, bronchial carcinoids,
pancreatic tumours, and thymomas.
. Effects: Excess ACTH stimulates adrenal glands to produce cortisol,
leading to Cushing’s syndrome.
* Symptoms: Weight gain, hypertension, diabetes, muscle weakness,
skin changes (e.g., purple striae), and immunosuppression

39
Q

What are some examples of tumour induced hypersecretion (endocrine disorder)?

A
  • Pituitary Adenomas: Can cause excess production of
    growth hormone (GH), leading to acromegaly.
  • Adrenal Adenomas: Can produce excess cortisol, leading to Cushing’s syndrome

(also immunological factors)

40
Q

What are some causes of hyposecretion?

A

*genetic causes (genetic mutations can affect hormone synthesis or gland development)
*immunological attack (autoimmune diseases can destroy endocrine gland cells)
*destruction by disease (Infections or chronic diseases can damage endocrine
glands)
*surgical removal (Surgical removal of endocrine glands for medical reasons can lead to hormone deficiencies)

41
Q

What is decreased target cell responsiveness caused by?

A

*receptor-level issues
Mutations or downregulation of hormone receptors
reduce target-cell responsiveness.

42
Q

What is autoimmunity?

A

Autoimmunity occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body’s own
cells and tissues, leading to various autoimmune diseases

43
Q

Describe the process of autoimmunity?

A

1.Genetic Predisposition: Certain genes (e.g., HLA genes) increase the risk of
autoimmunity.
2.Environmental Triggers: Infections, toxins, and drugs can trigger an inappropriate
immune response.
3.Loss of Immune Tolerance: Failures in central and peripheral tolerance allow self-
reactive lymphocytes to survive.
4.Activation of Self-Reactive Lymphocytes: Self-reactive B cells produce
autoantibodies, and T cells attack self-antigens.
5.Inflammation and Tissue Damage: Cytokines, chemokines, and the complement
system cause chronic inflammation and damage tissues

44
Q

Examples of autoimmune diseases?

A

*type 1 diabetes mellitus
*grave’s disease

45
Q

What is step 1 of diagnosis of endocrine disorders?

A

-signs and symptoms

46
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of hypo secretion?

A

Hyposecretion: Fatigue, weight gain/loss, cold intolerance, hypotension,
hypoglycaemia, and specific organ dysfunctions (e.g., hypothyroidism causing
slow metabolism)

47
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of hypersecretion?

A

*Hypersecretion: Weight loss/gain, heat intolerance, hypertension,
hyperglycaemia, increased sweating, and organ-specific symptoms (e.g.,
hyperthyroidism causing rapid metabolism)

48
Q

What is step 2 to diagnosis of endocrine disorders?

A

imaging

49
Q

What is the purpose of imaging?

A

*Purpose: Detect the presence of tumours (primary or secondary) that may
cause hormonal imbalances.

49
Q

What are the imaging techniques?

A
  • Ultrasound: Commonly used for thyroid and adrenal glands.
  • CT Scan/MRI: Detailed imaging for detecting pituitary, adrenal,
    and pancreatic tumors.
  • Nuclear Medicine Scans: Thyroid scans using radioactive iodine
50
Q

What is step 3 of endocrine disorder diagnosis?

A

*hormone levels (clinical biochemistry)

51
Q

What are some treatment strategies for endocrine disorders?

A
  • Hyposecretion/hormone deficiency – Replace the hormone
    (supplements)
  • Hypersecretion/hormone excess – Block the synthesis and
    release (drugs)
  • Impaired target-cell responsiveness – drugs to enhance
    cellular response to hormone
  • Tumour – radiotherapy or surgery
51
Q

What are the types of hormone tests?

A
  • Single-Point (Baseline) Measurements
  • Purpose: Assess hormone levels at a single time point to identify
    abnormalities.
    Dynamic or Provocative Tests
  • Purpose: Evaluate the integrity of the feedback control mechanism
    stimulation Tests (For Suspected Hyposecretion)
    *Purpose: Determine if a gland can produce adequate hormone
    levels when stimulated.
    Suppression Tests (For Suspected Hypersecretion)
    *Purpose: Determine if hormone production can be
    suppressed, indicating hypersecretion.

PMP101 - Health, Disease and Patient (25 decks)

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