Economics Flashcards
commonwealth
جمهور، هیئت ملت، دولت، مردم (یک کشور)، مردمان، مردمگان، کشور آزاد، کشور فدرال
- His Utopia is not a chimerical commonwealth but a practical improvement on what already exists.
- آرمان‌شهر او یک کشور فدرال خیالی نیست؛ بلکه بهبودی عملی در چیزی است که حال وجود دارد.
- the Commonwealth of Australia
- کشور فدرال استرالیا
(Noun) (در مورد برخی ایالت‌های امریکا) ایالت
- the Commonwealth of Virginia
- ایالت ویرجینیا
(Noun) (مهجور) خیر و رفاه عمومی، سعادت جامعه
1 [the] (also British Commonwealth especially old use, Commonwealth of Nations formal) an organization of about 50 independent countries, most of which were formerly part of the British Empire, established in order to encourage trade and friendly relations among its members. The British king or queen is the head of the Commonwealth, and there is a meeting each year for all its heads of government.
2 [countable] the official title of
a) some states of the US, for example, Virginia and Kentucky,
b) some countries that are officially connected with the US, especially Puerto Rico
c) some countries made up of a group of states, such as Australia
3 → the Commonwealth
From Longman Business Dictionary
Com‧mon‧wealth /ˈkɒmənwelθˈkɑː-/ (also Commonwealth of Nations) noun
an organization of about 50 countries that were once part of the British empire, and that are now connected politically and economically
Britain’s gradual conversion of the colonial Empire into the British Commonwealth of Nations
deficit
کمبود، کسر، کسرعمل، کسر درآمد
- a budget deficit
- کسر بودجه
the difference between the amount of something that you have and the higher amount that you need → shortfall
the country’s widening budget deficit
the US’s foreign trade deficit
deficit of
a deficit of £2.5 million
deficit in
Many countries have a big deficit in food supply.
in deficit
The US balance of payments was in deficit.
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + DEFICIT
huge/massive (=very big)
The recession left the Government with a massive deficit.
a growing deficit (=becoming bigger)
Congress must slash federal spending to curb a growing deficit.
a budget deficit
Last year there was a budget deficit of US $70,000,000.
a trade deficit (=the difference between the amount of goods a country imports and the amount it exports)
Last year the country had its largest trade deficit in recent history.
VERBS
have a deficit
We had a trade deficit of more than $4 billion.
show a deficit
Friday’s trade figures showed a £10 billion deficit.
face a deficit
The party is facing a deficit of £1.3million for this year, so it must find ways of cutting its costs.
reduce/cut a deficit
We must drastically cut our budget deficit to sustain economic growth.
eliminate a deficit (=completely get rid of it)
His proposals have so far failed to eliminate the deficit.
surplus
زیادتی، مازاد، زائد، باقیمانده، اضافه، زیادی
- budget surplus
- اضافه بودجه
- the export of surplus wheat
- صادرات گندم اضافه برنیاز
Related topics: Economics
sur‧plus1 /ˈsɜːpləs $ ˈsɜːr-/ ●○○ noun [countable, uncountable]
1 an amount of something that is more than what is needed or used SYN excess
Any surplus can be trimmed away.
surplus of
a surplus of crude oil
2 the amount of money that a country or company has left after it has paid for all the things it needs
a huge budget surplus of over £16 billion
→ trade surplus
Examples from the Corpus
surplus
• For the first time in 20 years Congress was working with a budget surplus.
• a budget surplus
• The budget surplus could be used to hire and train more border guards.
• The December surplus was the first monthly trade gain in 1995, the ministry said in a preliminary report.
• Government subsidies have resulted in huge grain surpluses.
• Our surplus on book publishing last year was $47 million.
• Plant closings, department mergers, and restricted budgets often provide an organization with a temporary surplus of cash and other resources.
• The Gulf States produce more oil than they need and sell the surplus to the rest of the world.
• The surplus will go towards replacing their club van that was used to transport boxers to events and beach training at Redcar.
• This surplus will cause a competitive bidding down of price by sellers eager to relieve themselves of their surplus.
• The existence of monopoly denies them that opportunity, and this is manifest in the inevitable reduction in total surplus.
• Today there is a worrisome surplus of 1 million empty apartments in the East, particularly in the cities.
surplus of
• There is a slight surplus of oil worldwide.
budget surplus
• A budget surplus of EC$12,300,000 was predicted on the current account.
• The result has been a burgeoning budget surplus.
• The government is running a large budget surplus and expects to carry on doing so.
• Interest rates can be cut and Bill Clinton’s budget surplus spent.
• Bush spent the campaign pretending that this was an election about the budget surplus, or social security or the military.
• The budget surplus of A$8,107 million was the fourth consecutive surplus, and would be used to reduce overseas debt.
surplus2 ●○○ adjective
1 more than what is needed or used
Ethiopia has no surplus food.
surplus cash/funds/revenues
Surplus cash can be invested.
2 → be surplus to requirements
debt
] بدهی، وام، قرض، دِین
- to pay off one’s debts
- بدهکاری‌های خود را پس دادن
- America’s foreign debts
- بدهی‌های خارجی امریکا
- We are in their debts for their efforts.
- ما مدیون زحمات آنها هستیم.
- our debt to the future generations
- دین ما به نسل‌های آینده
debt /det/ ●●● S3 W2 noun
1 [countable] a sum of money that a person or organization owes
debt of
She had debts of over £100,000.
He had enough money to pay off his outstanding debts.
students who run up huge debts
2 [uncountable] when you owe money to someone OPP credit
in debt (to somebody)
Nearly half the students said they were in debt.
The band will be in debt to the record company for years.
£200/$1,000 etc in debt
A rash business decision left him $600 in debt.
get/run/fall etc into debt
The club sank deeper into debt.
be heavily/deeply in debt (=owe a lot of money)
3 [countable usually singular] the degree to which you have learned from or been influenced by someone or something else
debt to
Braque acknowledged his debt to Impressionist painting.
4 → debt of gratitude/thanks
COLLOCATIONS
VERBS
have debts
Fortunately, I have no debts.
run up debts (also amass debts formal) (=borrow more and more money)
At that time he was drinking a lot and running up debts.
pay off a debt (=pay the money back)
The first thing I’m going to do is pay off my debts.
repay/settle a debt formal (=pay the money back)
He was hoping he would soon have enough money to settle his debts.
clear your debts (=repay all of them)
It took him three years to clear his bank debts.
service a debt (=pay the interest on a debt, but not pay it back)
By then, she was borrowing more money just to service her debts.
write off/cancel a debt (=say officially that it does not have to be paid)
The bank finally agreed to write off the debt.
be burdened with/saddled with debts (=have big debts)
Many poor countries are saddled with huge debts.
reduce a debt
The programme aims to reduce the debt of the world’s poorest countries.
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + DEBT
big/large
The debts got bigger and bigger.
huge (=very big)
Young people often leave university with huge debts.
unpaid/outstanding (=not yet paid)
The average outstanding debt on credit cards in Britain is now over £3,000.
heavy debts (=big debts)
The company wanted to reduce its heavy debts.
a bad debt (=one that is unlikely to be paid back)
Companies lose millions of pounds each year from having to write off bad debts.
a bank debt (=one that you owe to a bank)
The company closed with bank debts of about £350 million.
the national debt (=the total amount that is owed by the government of a country)
Their national debt is the third largest in the world.
trade
debt /det/ ●●● S3 W2 noun
1 [countable] a sum of money that a person or organization owes
debt of
She had debts of over £100,000.
He had enough money to pay off his outstanding debts.
students who run up huge debts
2 [uncountable] when you owe money to someone OPP credit
in debt (to somebody)
Nearly half the students said they were in debt.
The band will be in debt to the record company for years.
£200/$1,000 etc in debt
A rash business decision left him $600 in debt.
get/run/fall etc into debt
The club sank deeper into debt.
be heavily/deeply in debt (=owe a lot of money)
3 [countable usually singular] the degree to which you have learned from or been influenced by someone or something else
debt to
Braque acknowledged his debt to Impressionist painting.
4 → debt of gratitude/thanks
COLLOCATIONS
VERBS
have debts
Fortunately, I have no debts.
run up debts (also amass debts formal) (=borrow more and more money)
At that time he was drinking a lot and running up debts.
pay off a debt (=pay the money back)
The first thing I’m going to do is pay off my debts.
repay/settle a debt formal (=pay the money back)
He was hoping he would soon have enough money to settle his debts.
clear your debts (=repay all of them)
It took him three years to clear his bank debts.
service a debt (=pay the interest on a debt, but not pay it back)
By then, she was borrowing more money just to service her debts.
write off/cancel a debt (=say officially that it does not have to be paid)
The bank finally agreed to write off the debt.
be burdened with/saddled with debts (=have big debts)
Many poor countries are saddled with huge debts.
reduce a debt
The programme aims to reduce the debt of the world’s poorest countries.
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + DEBT
big/large
The debts got bigger and bigger.
huge (=very big)
Young people often leave university with huge debts.
unpaid/outstanding (=not yet paid)
The average outstanding debt on credit cards in Britain is now over £3,000.
heavy debts (=big debts)
The company wanted to reduce its heavy debts.
a bad debt (=one that is unlikely to be paid back)
Companies lose millions of pounds each year from having to write off bad debts.
a bank debt (=one that you owe to a bank)
The company closed with bank debts of about £350 million.
the national debt (=the total amount that is owed by the government of a country)
Their national debt is the third largest in the world.
appreciation
1 [uncountable] pleasure you feel when you realize something is good, useful, or well done
appreciation of
It helps children to develop an appreciation of poetry and literature.
2 [uncountable] a feeling of being grateful for something someone has done
show/express your appreciation
The chairman asked me to express our appreciation of all your hard work.
He was presented with a watch in appreciation of his long service.
3 [countable, uncountable] an understanding of the importance or meaning of something
appreciation of
a realistic appreciation of the situation
4 [singular, uncountable] a rise in value, especially of land or possessions OPP depreciation
an appreciation of 50% in property values
Examples from the Corpus
appreciation
• There has been an appreciation of 50% in property values.
• The beginnings of an appreciation of complex numbers came about with the work of Gerolamo Cardano.
• Murphy teaches classes in art appreciation to young children.
• The omission of these chapters will not detract from your general appreciation of homoeopathy.
• As Lynn got older, her appreciation for her hometown grew.
• To show his appreciation of her kindness he sent her some flowers.
• He slobbered over her foot in appreciation.
• In appreciation of Mr Mainwaring’s years of service, the company presented him with a gold watch.
• Show my appreciation of what you do for me?
• We’d like you to accept this gift as a small token of our appreciation.
• The first is, yes, to show appreciation and respect - which various people require in varying degrees.
• Use a combination of suggestion, appreciation of their difficulties, praise for his efforts and pleasure at their success.
• When the dollar rises, yen-based investors benefit from both the appreciation of their investment and the currency.
appreciation of
• Management does not have a realistic appreciation of the situation.
in appreciation of
• Theo, we’d like to invite you to dinner in appreciation of your hard work this week.
• Apparently it’s in appreciation of my success at the club - and commitment to the job!
• O’Hara, on behalf of the company, spoke a few words in appreciation of Meredith.
depreciation
کاهش بها، تنزل، فرسودگی، ناچیزشماری
- depreciation cost
- هزینه‌ی فرسودگی
- to estimate the degree of depreciation in a car after a year’s use
- برآورد کردن میزان فرسایش اتومبیل پس از یک سال کار
- The amount of $ 5000 has been entered for machinery depreciation.
- مبلغ پنج هزار دلار برای فرسایش ماشین‌آلات منظور شده است.
- a rapid depreciation of currency
- افت سریع در ارزش پول
- She made some bitter remarks in depreciation of her enemies.
- او در تحقیر دشمنان خود اظهارات تندی کرد.
value
lated topics: Maths
val‧ue1 /ˈvæljuː/ ●●● S2 W1 noun
1 MONEY [countable, uncountable] the amount of money that something is worth
value of
The alterations doubled the value of the house.
► see thesaurus at cost
2 WORTH THE MONEY PAID [countable, uncountable] used to say that something is worth what you pay for it, or not worth what you pay for it
good/poor etc value (for money) British English, a good/poor etc value American English
The lunch special is really good value.
At only £45 a night, the hotel is great value for money.
value for money British English (=good value, or the quality of being good value)
Every customer is looking for value for money.
3 IMPORTANCE/USEFULNESS [uncountable] the importance or usefulness of something
value of
A group of athletes spoke to the students about the value of a college education.
the nutritional value of cereal
be of great/little value
His research has been of little practical value.
place/put a high value on something
The Sioux Indians placed a high value on generosity.
The locket has great sentimental value (=importance because it was a gift, it reminds you of someone etc).
4 → of value
5 → shock/curiosity/novelty etc value
6 → values
7 AMOUNT [countable] technical a mathematical quantity shown by a letter of the alphabet or sign
Let x have the value 25.
COLLOCATIONS – Meaning 1: the amount of money that something is worth
VERBS
increase/rise/go up in value
The dollar has been steadily increasing in value.
fall/go down in value
There is a risk that the shares may fall in value.
double in value
The house doubled in value over two years.
put a value on something (=say how much it is worth)
It’s hard to put a value on something so unusual.
the value of something increases/rises
The value of the land had increased by $2m.
the value of something falls
The value of your investment may fall.
something holds its value (=its value does not fall over time)
Good quality furniture should hold its value.
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + VALUE
high
You should insure any goods of high value.
low
The low value of the dollar will benefit tourists.
the market value (=the amount something can be sold for)
The mortgage is more than the house’s current market value.
the monetary/cash value (=the value of something in money)
They made an attempt to assess the cash value of the contract.
face value (=the value printed on something)
The tickets are selling for far more than their face value.
the real value (=its value after considering inflation)
The real value of their salaries has fallen.
the street value (=the amount that users will pay for illegal drugs)
Drugs with a street value of £1,600 were found in the car.
property/land values
Property values have fallen sharply.
PHRASES
a fall/drop in value
There was a sudden drop in the value of oil.
a rise/increase in value
We saw a rapid increase in the land’s value.
tax
Related topics: Tax
tax1 /tæks/ ●●● S1 W1 noun
[countable, uncountable] an amount of money that you must pay to the government according to your income, property, goods etc and that is used to pay for public services
tax on
a tax on fuel
He already pays 40% tax on his income.
before/after tax
profits before tax of £85.9m
→ capital gains tax, → corporation tax(1), council tax, income tax, sales tax, stealth tax, VAT, PAYE
COLLOCATIONS
VERBS
pay tax
Many people feel they are paying too much tax.
raise/increase taxes (also put up taxes British English)
He claimed the Labour Party would put up taxes.
lower/cut/reduce taxes
There’s no point promising to cut taxes if you can’t afford it.
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + TAX
high
Higher taxes will slow down consumer spending.
low
Republican voters say they want lower taxes and sensible spending cuts.
income tax (=tax paid on money that you earn)
The rich should pay more income tax.
sales tax (=a tax on things you buy)
We have to pay 15% sales tax on everything we buy.
inheritance tax (=tax paid on money, property etc that you receive from someone when they die)
Inheritance tax applies to the total value of the deceased’s assets.
a direct tax (=a tax on income)
The government’s revenue comes mainly from direct taxes.
an indirect tax (=a tax on things you buy)
The effect of indirect taxes is to raise the prices of goods.
a flat (rate) tax (=a tax that is the same for different people or things)
Corporate taxes are to be abolished and replaced by a flat rate tax.
TAX + NOUN
the tax rate/the rate of tax
The government reduced the basic rate of tax to 25p in the pound.
tax cuts
He believes that big tax cuts will encourage economic growth.
tax increases
He accused the president of planning the biggest tax increases in US history.
tax incentives (=lower taxes that encourage people to do something)
We have introduced new tax incentives for savings.
a tax allowance (=an amount you can earn without paying tax on it)
Cutting personal tax allowances penalizes the poor.
the tax burden (=the amount of tax paid)
The total tax burden has risen only slightly.
tariff
تعرفه گمرگی، تعرفه‌بندی کردن
- the tariff on wool
- مالیات گمرکی پشم
- rooms and meals at the lowest tariffs in town
- اتاق (هتل) و خوراک به نازل‌ترین قیمت در شهر
- to remove all tariff barriers
- کلیه‌ی موانع گمرکی را برطرف کردن
Related topics: Tax, Food, Business
tar‧iff /ˈtærɪf/ ●○○ noun [countable]
1 a tax on goods coming into a country or going out of a country
tariff on
The government may impose tariffs on imports.
2 British English a list of fixed prices charged by a hotel or restaurant, for example for the cost of meals or rooms
3 British English a list or system of prices which mobile phone companies charge for the services they provide
Examples from the Corpus
tariff
• Third, the results clearly show the non-equivalence between tariffs and quotas in the presence of oligopoly.
• Secondly the lowering of trans-ocean communications tariffs may make global data pipelines nearly as cheap to operate as national networks.
• No one had risked more for tariff reform than he had in 1923.
• As a non-GATT member its goods generally faced higher tariffs and other trade barriers in world markets.
• Their customs union, known as Mercosur, took the final step last year toward eliminating most tariffs.
• Banana group Geest jumped 11p to 365p, boosted by recent tariff changes.
• The aim of the organization is to reduce tariffs and promote free trade.
• So Musser raised the tariff to $ 3.
tariff on
• Some representatives recommended higher tariffs on imported goods.
From Longman Business Dictionary
tar‧iff /ˈtærɪf/ noun [countable usually plural]
1 a tax on goods coming into a country or going out of it
France and Germany imposed import tariffs on grain.
Canadian retailers said that higher tariffs in Canada compared with the U.S. were contributing to higher prices on some goods sold in Canada.
→ ad valorem tariff
→ compound tariff
→ customs tariff
→ discriminating tariff
→ import tariff
→ multiple tariff
→ protective tariff
→ punitive tariff
→ retaliatory tariff
→ revenue tariff
2 a list of fixed prices, especially ones that change, depending on the time, day etc
Telephone tariffs are set by a government model to provide a 12% real rate of return.
Origin tariff (1500-1600) Italian tariffa, from Arabic ta’rif “list of money to be paid”
Duty
du‧ty /ˈdjuːti $ ˈduː-/ ●●● S2 W1 noun (plural duties)
1 SOMETHING YOU MUST DO [countable, uncountable] something that you have to do because it is morally or legally right SYN obligation
I promise I will do my duty.
We feel it is our duty to help her.
Local authorities have a duty to keep the streets clean.
You have a duty to your husband and to your children.
She has a strong sense of moral duty.
The unions have failed in their duty to female workers.
In the traditional Hindu family, the son is duty-bound to look after his mother.
2 WORK [countable usually plural, uncountable] something you have to do as part of your job
duties
Martin’s duties included cleaning the cars.
She works for her father doing part-time secretarial duties.
He will soon be fit enough to carry out his duties (=do his job).
He can only do light duties.
When Juliet reported for duty (=arrived and said she was ready to start work) she was sent to check on a new patient.
A teacher may be fired for neglect of duty (=failing to do their job properly).
He did three tours of duty in Vietnam (=three periods working in a foreign country as a soldier, government officer etc).
3 → be on/off duty
4 TAX [countable, uncountable] a tax you pay on something you buy
duty on
the duty on cigarettes
customs duty (=tax paid on goods coming into the country)
→ death duties, stamp duty
5 → do duty as something
→ double duty, heavy-duty, → jury duty, → on active duty
COLLOCATIONS – Meaning 1: something that you have to do because it is morally or legally right
VERBS
have a duty to do something
Parents have a duty to make sure that their children receive an education.
do your duty
I felt I had done my duty by voting.
fulfil your duty British English, fulfill your duty American English formal (=do what is needed)
The school has failed to fulfil its legal duty towards students.
have/owe a duty to somebody
A tenant owes a duty to the landlord to keep the house in reasonable condition.
fail in your duty (=not do something that you should do)
I would be failing in my duty if I didn’t warn you of the dangers.
ADJECTIVES
a moral duty
She felt it was her moral duty to treat everyone equally.
a legal duty
Employers have a legal duty to ensure the safety of their workforce.
a statutory duty (=required by law)
Local authorities have a statutory duty to ensure that parks are clean.
a public duty (=relating to the people of a country)
The media has a public duty to report the truth.
a civic duty (=done because you live in a place)
It is your civic duty to vote.
PHRASES
a sense of duty
He was caring for his parents out of a sense of duty rather than love.
be duty-bound to do something formal (=have a duty to do something)
Soldiers are here to do a job and are duty-bound to complete it.
COLLOCATIONS – Meaning 2: something you have to do as part of your job
VERBS
carry out your duties (also perform/discharge your duties formal) (=do your job)
She has always carried out her duties efficiently.
take up your duties (=start doing a new job)
Neale has agreed a three-year contract and takes up his duties on March 1.
resume your duties (=start doing your job again)
She hopes to be well enough to resume her duties next week.
report for duty (=arrive and be ready to start work)
You must report for duty at 8:30 tomorrow morning.
neglect/shirk your duties (=not do your job properly)
No soldier can be allowed to neglect his duties.
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + DUTY
official duties
The new president will take up his official duties next month.
presidential/royal/ministerial etc duties (=duties that go with being a president, member of a royal family, a minister etc)
The prince is now old enough to carry out royal duties.
household/domestic duties (=jobs you have to do around the house)
My husband and I share most of the household duties.
light duties (=not involving hard physical work)
He’d been wounded, sent home and put on light duties.
guard duty (=job of guarding a place)
There were two soldiers on guard duty outside the embassy.
PHRASES
neglect of duty (=failing to do your job properly)
Six police officers were fired for neglect of duty.
a tour of duty (=period of working in another country as a soldier, government officer etc)
He became a General, and his tours of duty included Korea and Vietnam.
beyond the call of duty (=more than you have to do as part of your job)
She’s a doctor who has gone beyond the call of duty in her care for her patients.
in the course of duty (=while doing your job, especially for your country)
Stewart received a medal for outstanding bravery in the course of duty.
profit
Related topics: Trade
prof‧it1 /ˈprɒfɪt $ ˈprɑː-/ ●●● S1 W1 noun
1 [countable, uncountable] money that you gain by selling things or doing business, after your costs have been paid OPP loss → revenue
The shop’s daily profit is usually around $500.
She sold the business and bought a farm with the profits.
They sold their house at a healthy profit.
2 [uncountable] formal an advantage that you gain from doing something
There’s no profit in letting meetings drag on.
→ non-profit
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES
a big/huge profit
Drug companies make huge profits.
a quick profit (=happening quickly)
They were only interested in a quick profit.
a good profit
There is a good profit to be made in selling cars.
a substantial profit
The agent then sells the land for a substantial profit to someone else.
a healthy/handsome/tidy profit (=big)
By the second year, the restaurant began to make a healthy profit.
a small/modest profit
The business managed to produce a small profit last year.
net profit (=after tax and costs are paid)
The company made a net profit of $10.5 million.
gross profit (also pre-tax profit) (=before tax and costs are paid)
The hotel group made a gross profit of £51.9 million in 2008.
trading/operating profit (=profit relating to a company’s normal activities)
Both turnover and operating profits were lower.
VERBS
make a profit
We are in business to make a profit.
turn/earn a profit (=make a profit)
Without the liquor sales, the store could not turn a profit.
show a profit (=make a profit)
The business will not show a profit this year.
report/post a profit (=officially announce a profit)
The company reported net profits of $3.6 million for fiscal year 2006.
generate profit(s)
We have the capacity to generate more profit.
boost profits (=make them increase)
They aim to boost profits by slashing costs.
maximize profits (=make them as big as possible)
Every firm tries to maximize its profits.
profits are up/down
Pre-tax profits were up 21.5%.
profits rise/increase/grow
Half of the firms surveyed expected profits to rise.
profits soar/leap (=increase by a large amount)
profits fall
The group saw profits fall from £24m to £17.8m.
profits slump/plunge (=fall by a large amount)
The group’s pre-tax profits slumped to £25.5m.
elasticity
قابلیت خمیدگی، قابلیت ارتجاع
- the elasticity of car tires
- کشسانی تایر اتومبیل
- The body’s skin loses its elasticity because of aging.
- پوست بدن در اثر سالمندی، کشسانی خود را از دست می‌دهد.
- elasticity of supply
- کشش عرضه
1 the ability of something to stretch and go back to its usual length or size
the skin’s natural elasticity
2 → elasticity of demand
Examples from the Corpus
elasticity
• Producers must ask themselves about elasticity whenever they consider changing the prices of their goods.
• But since economies do not have fingers or feet, what can economic elasticity mean?
• However within sample it is important to examine the implied elasticity to see whether the estimated coefficients give rise to plausible effects.
• Analogues of these elastic relations apply for viscoelastic materials as for the case of isotropic elasticity considered before.
• With age, the skin’s inner layer loses its elasticity.
• The relationship between quantity demanded of a commodity and its price is normally measured by the price elasticity of demand.
• The curve has slope which may be re-arranged substitution: using the definition of the elasticity of substitution:.
• The inclusion of Silk Protein helps maintain the natural water balance to protect, condition and restore the elasticity of hair.
liability
) مسئولیت، الزام، تعهد، پاسخگویی، پایندانی، گردن‌گیری، مشمولیت، شمول، دربرگیری
- the liabilities of an insurer
- تعهدات بیمه‌گر
- liability for an accident
- مسئولیت تصادف
- liability for military service
- مشمولیت خدمت نظام
1 [uncountable] legal responsibility for something, especially for paying money that is owed, or for damage or injury
liability for
Tenants have legal liability for any damage they cause.
liability to
your liability to capital gains tax
liability to do something
The court ruled there was no liability to pay any refund.
2 → liabilities
3 [singular] someone or something that is likely to cause problems for someone
A kid like Tom would be a liability in any classroom.
liability to
The outspoken minister has become a liability to the government.
4 → liability to something
→ limited liability
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + LIABILITY
full liability (=complete responsibility)
The driver of the other car accepted full liability for the accident.
limited liability (=when someone is responsible for damages or debts for a limited amount of money)
Limited liability encourages managers to take more risks with shareholder funds than they would otherwise.
unlimited liability (=when someone is responsible for damages or debts for the full amount of money)
Under the agreement, the insurance company has unlimited liability.
legal liability (=responsibility for something that is covered by laws)
What is the legal liability of an employer in the event of an accident at work?
criminal liability (=responsiblity for injury or damage covered by criminal law)
A child under the age of ten cannot face criminal liability for its acts.
civil liability (=responsiblity for injury or damage covered by civil law)
A company operating a ship which spills oil into the sea will face civil liability.
tax liability (=a legal responsibility to pay tax)
The government is planning to increase the tax liability on company cars.
personal liability (=when an individual person is legally responsible)
Directors can incur personal liability for errors made by their companies.
VERBS
have liability
The parents of these children may have some liability.
accept/admit liability
The company accepts no liability for any loss, inconvenience, or delay caused by a cancellation of train services.
assume liability (=take the responsibility for something, which you did not have before)
You would then assume the tax liability for the account.
incur liability (=be in a situation in which you must take responsibility for something)
The transfer of property will not incur a liability to inheritance tax.
deny liability (=say you are not responsible for something)
The defendants continued to deny liability for Peck’s death.
escape/avoid liability
The defendant escaped liability by proving that he had taken all possible measures to avoid the accident.
asset
1 [usually plural] the things that a company owns, that can be sold to pay debts
in assets
a corporation with $9 billion in assets
the value of a company’s assets
2 [usually singular] something or someone that is useful because they help you succeed or deal with problems OPP liability
A sense of humor is a great asset in this business.
be an asset to somebody/something
I think Rachel would be an asset to the department.
→ fixed assets, liquid assets
ledger
دفترکل، سنگ پهن روی گور، تیر، تخته
(Noun) (Verb - intransitive) معین
led‧ger /ˈledʒə $ -ər/ noun [countable]
a book in which a business, bank etc records how much money it receives and spends
Examples from the Corpus
ledger
• We then begin to see the debit side of the structural-adjustment ledger.
• Perhaps she would get the chance later to talk to him about the ledgers.
• Perhaps there was something not quite right about the files and the ledgers.
• Also recheck your measurements from the ledger.
• McCaslin recorded the trickle of supplies in the ledgers.
• The posts will be cut off even with the bottom of the ledger.
• But governments look only at the spending side of the ledger.
• Cursed be that mortal inter-indebtedness which will not do away with ledgers.
inflation
in‧fla‧tion /ɪnˈfleɪʃən/ ●●○ W3 noun [uncountable]
1 a continuing increase in prices, or the rate at which prices increase
Inflation is now at over 16%.
2 the process of filling something with air
COLLOCATIONS
ADJECTIVES/NOUN + INFLATION
low
France had achieved low inflation and steady growth.
high
Inflation remained high throughout this period.
annual inflation
Annual inflation in 1990 was 8.1%.
rising inflation
The country was hit by rising inflation.
spiralling/soaring inflation (=inflation that is increasing quickly and out of control)
Argentina was suffering from spiralling inflation.
price/wage inflation (=increasing prices/wages)
Price inflation was running at about twelve percent last summer.
INFLATION + NOUN
the inflation rate/the rate of inflation
The current inflation rate stands at 4.1%.
the inflation figures
April’s inflation figures are likely to show a further fall.
VERBS
cause/lead to inflation
Too much government borrowing can lead to inflation.
fuel inflation/push up inflation (=make inflation worse)
The increase in food prices is fuelling inflation.
There are now fears that price rises will push up inflation.
control/curb inflation (=prevent it from increasing more)
These measures are designed to curb inflation.
fight/combat inflation
An economic plan to combat inflation was drawn up.
reduce inflation/get inflation down
The government has promised to reduce inflation to 3%.
The government’s top priority is to get inflation down to 2%.
keep inflation down (=keep it at a low level)
These policies will help to keep inflation down.
inflation rises
Inflation rose steadily from the mid-1960s.
inflation falls
Inflation fell by 0.5% last month.
inflation is running at 3%/4% etc (also inflation stands at 3%/4% etc) (=used to talk about the present rate of inflation)
Inflation currently stands at 3.2%.
keep pace with inflation (=be at the same level as inflation)
Salaries have not kept pace with inflation.
From Longman Business Dictionary
in‧fla‧tion /ɪnˈfleɪʃən/ noun [uncountable]
a continuing increase in the prices of goods and services, or the rate at which prices increase
A slowing economy would help contain inflation (=control it).
Gold does well only during periods of high inflation.
Portugal had annual average inflation of 11.4% last year.
The inflation rate rose to 4.5% last month.
Adjusted for inflation (=after taking inflation into account) real growth is estimated to be 1.8%
deflation
de‧fla‧tion /diːˈfleɪʃən/ noun [uncountable] technical
a reduction in the amount of money in a country’s economy, so that prices fall or stop rising → inflation
—deflationary adjective
the government’s deflationary policies
Examples from the Corpus
deflation
• Phases of weathering, drying and deflation would lead to a steady deepening of the hollow.
• The nominal stock of money, M 1, is assumed to remain unchanged in the face of balanced deflation.
• Obviously a process of balanced deflation would entail no alteration of the real wage rate.
• Governments responded to the profits squeeze and loss of competitiveness by deflation and incomes policies.
• The authorities have been struggling to deal with the problems of debt deflation for just over 11 years now.
• In fact, because of deflation, the wages of those working actually went up, in effect.
From Longman Business Dictionary
de‧fla‧tion /ˌdiːˈfleɪʃən, dɪ-/ noun [uncountable]
when a government reduces demand for goods and services by raising interest rates and taxes, limiting wage increases, or reducing government spending, or a combination of these
Governments responded to the loss of competitiveness by deflation and incomes policies.
—deflationary adjective
The government was unwilling to introduce adequate deflationary policies.
→ asset deflation
→ currency deflation
→ compare disinflation, inflation
Exercises
More results asset deflation currency deflation See all results Pictures of the day What are these? Image of cello Image of violin Click on the pictures to check. Explore topics Cricket Youth Advertising & marketing Roads See all topics Word of the day uncanny very strange and difficult to explain فروکش، تقلیل قیمت‌ها - economic deflation - رکود اقتصادی
depression
افسردگی، پریشانی
- That news filled all of us with depression.
- آن خبر همه‌ی ما را غرق در اندوه کرد.
- cyclical depression
- افسرده روانی ادواری
(Noun) [Countable, Uncountable] کسادی، تنزل، رکود
- a depression in Indian arts which will result in their disappearance
- کسادی در صنایع دستی سرخپوستان که منجر به نابودی آن خواهد شد
(Noun) [Countable] تورفتگی، گودشدگی
- The slightest depression of the button will start the engine.
- کمترین فشار روی دکمه موتور را به کار می‌اندازد.
- Some of the depressions on the surface of the field were filled with water.
- برخی از فرورفتگی‌های پهنه‌ی دشت مملو از آب بودند.
- the depressions on the surface of the Moon
- گودی‌های سطح کره ماه
- a quick depression of the mercury in the thermometer
- پایین رفتن سریع جیوه در حرارت سنج
Related topics: Psychology, psychiatry, Meteorology, Illness & disability
de‧pres‧sion /dɪˈpreʃən/ ●●○ W3 AWL noun
1 [countable, uncountable]
a) a medical condition that makes you very unhappy and anxious and often prevents you from living a normal life
women who suffer from post-natal depression (=that sometimes happens after the birth of a baby)
b) a feeling of sadness that makes you think there is no hope for the future
Lucy’s mood was one of deep depression.
2 → the (Great) Depression
3 [countable, uncountable] a long period during which there is very little business activity and a lot of people do not have jobs → recession
the devastating effects of economic depression
4 [countable] a part of a surface that is lower than the other parts
depressions in the ground
5 [countable] technical a mass of air under low pressure, that usually causes rain
Examples from the Corpus
depression
• You could see a depression in the ground where the helicopter had landed.
• a depression in the sand
• The family had a history of alcoholism and depression.
• Mild symptoms of anxiety and depression are often associated with social difficulties.
• Denial, anger, depression, something and acceptance.
• She suffers from periods of deep depression, when she locks herself away and will speak to no one for weeks.
• Carcinoma, methadone, diabetes, depression, miscarriage and angina have poured down as unremittingly as the weather.
• an economic depression
• He has been suffering from depression since his wife died last year.
• During the past few decades, prescription drugs have also been widely used to control the symptoms of depression.
• Produces a quick rush of euphoria followed by a rapid depression of mood.
• My father had suffered from severe depression for many years.
• The nails had dug deeply into the palms, leaving bloodless, crescent-shaped depressions behind.
• The depressions in the sand are made by turtles, that come up here to lay their eggs.
• Keiffer’s book is about her battle with depression.
• This may involve dealing with depression, disappointment and many other feelings that have arisen since retirement.
• Hartnell blamed his financial difficulties on the worldwide depression.
post-natal depression
• First, it wasn’t good for the baby you were carrying; afterwards, post-natal depression.
• These are probably made worse by post-natal depression and feelings of loneliness.
• In July, looking thin and strained, the Princess is said to be suffering from post-natal depression during the Balmoral holidays.
• I had post-natal depression, and I was tired and everything.
• Croft, possibly also believing this after the evidence of death fell into his own post-natal depression.
• Visits Heidi’s mum Christine, who is unable to care for baby because of severe post-natal depression, visits every day.
economic depression
• Churchill’s move to the Board of Trade in 1908 coincided with the return of acute economic depression.
• We feel there will be an economic depression.
• And now it had been in a deep economic depression for years.
• The country was in the grip of economic depression, and in June 1921 there were more than two million out of work.
• Ironically a period of severe economic depression may be advantageous, in one sense at least.
• The disorder was aggravated by the economic depression of the 1930s.
• Did unemployment, economic depression and the General Strike reduce trade unionism to a pitiful weakness?
