Domain I, Topic D, Nutrition and Supporting Sciences Flashcards
Carbohydrates and protein provide _ calories / gram, fat provides _ calories / gram
4, 9
The brain uses ______ as an energy source unless the body is in starvation when it uses _____ bodies
glucose, ketone
_______ is stored as ________ in the muscles and liver
glucose, glycogen
________ is converted to _______ tissue when it isn’t used and stored as fat
glycogen, adipose
_______________ is the conversion of non carbohydrate sources into glucose (from glycerol an amino acids)
gluconeogenesis
___________ is the state of equilibrium of the internal environment of the body
homeostasis
_______ are proteins that are organic catalysts that control reactions
enzymes
________ are enzyme activators. Ex pantothenic acid, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin
coenzymes
A _________ is a substance upon which an enzyme works
substrate
A ________ assists enzymes; often minerals
cofactor
________ are secretions from the endocrine gland
hormones
________ are chemical messengers that trigger enzymes
hormones
Thyroxine is a _______ that regulates metabolism and the rate of oxidation. It influences physical and mental growth and stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis; raises blood sugar
hormone
_________ is the synthesis of a substance; requires energy
anabolism
__________ is the breakdown of a substance; produces energy
catabolism
_____ _____ ___________ (TEE) is the sum of basal energy expenditure (BEE), the energy expended in physical activity (EEPA), and the thermic effect of food (TEF)
Total Energy Expenditure
_____ ______ ___________ (BEE) is the minimum amount of energy needed at rest in fasting (amount needed to carry out involuntary work of the body, activity of internal organs, internal temperature)
Basal Energy Expenditure
_____ ______ ___________ is affected by extremes in temperature (tropical climate 5 - 20% increase), caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine stimulate 7 - 15%
Basal Energy Expenditure
______ ________ in ________ ________ (EEPA) is highly variable. AKA ________ _____________ (AT)
Energy Expended in Physical Activity, Activity Thermogenesis
The _______ ______ of ____ (TEF) is the amount of energy needed to digest food, absorb and assimilate nutrients. Greater after the consumption of carbohydrate and protein rather than fat.
Thermic Effect of Food
_____ _________ ____ (BMR) is measured in the morning when reclining, awake, relaxed, at normal body temperature, at least 12 hours after last meal, and several hours after strenuous activity
Basal Metabolic Rate
Basal Metabolic Rate measures ______ consumed
oxygen
Basal Metabolic Rate is primarily affected by ___, ___, ____ composition, and __________ glands.
sex, age, body, endocrine
Basal Metabolic Rate is measured by _______ _____ ______ (PBI)
Protein Bound Iodine
Protein Bound Iodine (PBI) measures activity of the _______ gland; specifically the hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
Thyroid
When _ _ _ is elevated _ _ _ is elevated
PBI, BMR
___ measures energy metabolism and the amount of thyroxine produced
PBI
___ is NOT a nutritional assessment parameter
PBI
___ is higher during periods of growth, pregnancy, lactation, fever (7% increase for each degree rise in temperature), some diseases
BMR
___ is increased by exercise
BMR
_____ ______ __________ (BEE) also known as calculated BMR includes age, sex, body surface area (height, weight)
Basal Energy Expenditure
_______ _________ ____ (RMR) is energy expenditure measured under similar condition to BMR, after a short rest and controlled intake of caffeine and alcohol
Resting Metabolic Rate
RMR is used more frequently than ___ and is 10 - 20% higher
BMR
The predictive equation _______ - __ ____ predicts within 10% of indirect calorimetry.
Mifflin - St. Joer
______ ____ ______ (ABW) should be used for underweight, overweight, and obese people when calculating calories
Actual Body Weight
Following changes in ______ is the most practical way of measuring energy balance
weight
______ calorimetry measures heat produced in respiration chamber
direct
________ calorimetry measures oxygen consumed and carbon dioxide excreted using a portable machine
Indirect
__________ _________ (RQ) = VCO2 (Carbon dioxide expired / VO2 (Oxygen consumed)
Respiratory Quotient
The RQ for carbohydrates alone is __
1
The RQ for protein alone is ____
0.82
The RQ for fat alone is ___
0.7
The RQ for mixed intake is ____
0.85
Glucose, fructose, and galactose are _______________
monosaccharides
sucrose is a ____________ and is made up of _______ and ________
disaccharide, glucose, fructose
Starch, cellulose, pectin, glycogen, and dextrin are all _______________
polysaccharides
______ are composed of glucose chains; make up 50% of all CHO intake
starch
_________ is resistant to digestive enzyme amylase; adds bulk
cellulose
______ is a non digestible carbohydrate that thickens fruit
Pectin
________ is an animal starch that is stored in the muscle liver
Glycogen
_______ is an intermediate product of starch breakdown
Dextrin
________ is an alcohol derived from glucose that is absorbed more slowly than glucose by passive diffusion
Sorbitol
In order of sweetness: fructose, ______ _____, sucrose, _______, sorbitol, ________, galactose, _______, and lactose
invert sugar, glucose, mannitol, maltose
Carbohydrates are made up of ______, ________, and ______
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
____________ produce a protein sparring action, preventing the use of protein for energy and allowing it to be used primarily for tissue synthesis.
carbohydrates
A carbohydrate restricted diet leads to _______ to fuel the brain
ketosis
________ are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur (in some amino acids)
Proteins
The amino acids cysteine, cystine, and methionine all contain ______
sulfur
_____ _____ have an amino group (NH2), a base carboxyl group (COOH), and an acid
amino acids
The _________ amino acids include theronine, valine, tryptophan, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, methionine, and histidine
Essential
During catabolic stress the amino acids arginine and glutamine are _____________ _________.
conditionally essential
__________ is a precursor for serotonin and niacin
Tryptophan
_____________ is converted to tyrosine
Phenylalanine
__________ is converted to cystenine
Methionine
A ________ has all essential amino acids in sufficient quantity and ratio to maintain body tissues and promote growth
complete
____ __________ _____ (HBV) proteins are foods that are at least 50% protein
High Biological Value
__________ proteins are those that are missing one or more essential amino acids
incomplete
______ proteins are amino acids
simple
__________ proteins (lipoproteins) are amino acids plus a non protein substance
conjugated
_______ proteins (peptide) are fragments from simple and conjugated proteins
derived
Sources of _______ include meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, and legumes
protein
The functions of _______ are tissue synthesis, maintaining growth, and regulation of body processes
Protein
_______ is an inefficient energy source, nitrogen has to be removed first
Protein
Only __% of protein can be converted to glucose
58
An average person needs ___ grams per KG body weight per day (10-15% of total energy intake)
0.8
Soybeans are low in the amino acid __________
methionine
___ protein is equivalent in protein quality to animal protein
Soy
Legumes are low in the amino acid __________, _______, nd __________
Methionine, cystine, tryptophan
Gelatin is low in the amino acids __________, ______, and has no __________
Methionine, lysine, tryptophan
___ (lipids) are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Fat
______ fats are known as triglycerides
Simple
______________ are composed of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol
triglycerides
Most food fats are ____________
triglyceride
________ fats are simple fats plus other components
compound
____________ are found in cell membranes and control the passage of compounds in and out of the cell
Phospholipids
Most _____________ are lecithins which contain choline.
phospholipids
_____________ help prevent fat accumulation in the liver
phospholipids
Phospholipids function in the transport and utilization of fatty acids and cholesterol through the enzyme ________ ___________ _______________ (LCAT)
Lecithin cholesterol acyltransferase
A _______ fat is a fat substance derived from a simple or compound fat by hydrolysis or enzymatic breakdown (fatty acid, glycerol, steroid)
derived
_________ fatty acids have all available bonds of carbon chain are filled with hydrogen; solid and hard at room temp
Saturated
___________ fatty acids have one or more double bonds
Unsaturated
_____________ fatty acids have one double bond
Monounsaturated
_______________ fatty acids have two or more double bonds
Polyunsaturated
Safflower oils are mostly _______________ fatty acids
Polyunsaturated
Canola oils are mostly ___________ fatty acids
Unsaturated
The absence of _________ fatty acids will create a specific deficiency disease
essential
Linoleic acids are omega ___ fatty acids
six
a-linolenic acids are omega _____ fatty acids
three
A lack of omega ___ fatty acids can create eczema, poor growth rate, and petechiae (red, purple skin spots)
six
If omega ___ fatty acids replace CHO for energy, LDL goes down and HDL goes up
six
If omega ___ fatty acids replace saturated fat, total cholesterol goes down and HDL goes down
six
_________ is the best source of omega ___ fatty acids
Safflower, six
Omega _____ fatty acids are responsible for retinal function and brain development. Deficiency results in neurological changes such as numbness and blurred vision
three
Omega _____ fatty acids come mainly from fish oils, walnuts, flaxseed, and canola
three
Omega _____ fatty acids decrease hepatic production of triglycerides (inhibit VLDL synthesis)
three
Omega _____ fatty acids have little effect on cholesterol levels
three
____ _____ are straigh hydrocarbon chains terminating in a carboxyl group (COOH) at one end and a methyl group (CH3) at the other end
Fatty Acids
Fatty acids are classified by the number of _______ in the chain, the position of the first double bond, and the number of double bonds
carbons
The location of the first double bond in a fatty acid, counted from the methyl end of the fatty acid is designated by the _____ sign
omega
C18:2ω6 is the structure of ________ acid. Indicates that there are 18 carbons, two double bonds, and the first double bond is located at the sixth carbon
linoleic
C18:3ω3 is the structure of _________ acid. Indicates there are 18 carbons, three double bonds at the first and third carbon
linolenic
_____________ is the process of adding hydrogen at the double bond to unsaturated fatty acids to increase saturation and stability
Hydrogenation
_____ fatty acids have hydrogens across from each other; pack as tightly as SFA in membranes; intake can influence membrane fluidity and could be harmful to cell function; found in milk fat (4 - 8%), margarines, shortenings, frying fats as product of partial hydrogenation of PUFA
Trans
___ fatty acids have hydrogens on the same side at the double bond; found in most natural fats and oils
Cis
______ chain triglycerides (MCT) are SFAs between 6 and 12 carbons; naturally found in milk fat, coconut oil, and palm and kernel oil
Medium
Olive, canola, peanut, sunflower, and coconut oil are ______________ fatty acids
monounsaturated
Safflower, corn, soybean, cottenseed, sunflower, and palm kernel oil are _______________ fatty acids
Polyunsaturated
______ is made up of saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids
Butter
_________ is made up of polyunsaturated, monounsaturated, and saturated fatty acids
Margarine
Most _____ - _______ lipids have zero grams of trans fat, no partially hydrogenated oils and are liquid plant oils
heart healthy
_____ _____ provide energy, insulation, padding, and depresses gastric secretion to delay gastric emptying
fatty acids
_____ _____ have less oxygen than carbohydrates and more carbons, and therefore provide more energy
fatty acids
_____ _____ should compose less than 30% of daily calories
fatty acids
_______ is metabolized as a fat and provides 7 calories per gram
alcohol
To determine calories from _______ (0.8)(proof)(ounces)
alcohol
_______ requires no digestion and is readily absorbed by simple diffusion through the stomach or small intestine and transported unaltered in the bloodstream
alcohol
Alcohol can cause decreased ____ _________ of fatty acids and promotes triglyceride synthesis
beta oxidation
__________ oil is found in salad dressings and won’t crystallize when cold
winterized
__________ oil is chilled to 45 degrees and fatty acids with high melting points crystallize and are filtered out
winterized
__________ oil is clear, not cloudy
winterized
Corn, soy, and cottenseed oils are __________, whereas olive oil is not
winterized
Vitamin __ is fat soluble, stored in the liver, carotene precursor, provitamin converted in intestinal mucosal cells. Toxic level 10,000 IU.
A
Vitamin __ functions in skin and vision and is found in yellow orange fruits, dark green leafy vegetables, cantaloupe, fish, liver, carrots, fortified skim milk, apricots, sweet potato
A
DRI for Vitamin __: Males = 900 micrograms. Females = 700 micrograms
A
Vitamin __ deficiencies include night blindness (nyctalopia) which is reversible, xerophthalmia (corneal damage) which is not reversible, and hyperkeratosis (dry, scaly skin)
A
Vitamin __ is a fat soluble whose precursor is cholesterol and is developed in the skin through exposure to UV light
D
Vitamin __ functions in calcium and phosphorus metabolism
D
Sources of vitamin __ include sunlight, egg yolk, and fortified milk
D
DRI for vitamin __ 5-15 micrograms per day
D
Deficiencies of vitamin __ include rickets and osteomalacia
D
The process for vitamin __ is 7 dehydrocholesterol > D3 cholecalciferol > D2 > ergocalciferol
D
Vitamin __ (also known as tocopherol) is a fat soluble vitamin. One of the least toxic vitamins (UL 1000 mgs)
E
Vitamin __ functions as an antioxidant and helps prevent the hemolysis of red blood cells
E
Vegetable oils, whole grains, green vegetables, and almonds are all sources of vitamin __
E
DRI for vitamin __: 15 mg
E
Deficiencies of vitamin __ include hemolytic anemia
E
Vitamin __ is a fat soluble vitamin synthesized by bacteria in the lower intestinal tract. No toxicity symptoms.
K
Vitamin __ forms prothrombin in the liver which aids in blood clotting. Is given pre surgery. Aids in calcium metabolism
K
Sources of vitamin __ include spinach, kale, broccoli, and green leafy vegetables
K
DRI for vitamin __: Males = 120 micrograms Females = 90 micrograms
K
Deficiencies of vitamin __ include blood hemorrhage. Is also affected by antibiotics and anticoagulants
K
Vitamin __ (thiamin) is a water soluble vitamin lost as temperature or pH rises. Is heat stable in acid.
B1
Vitamin __ (thiamin) aids in the oxidation of CHO and the metabolism of pyruvate
B1
Sources of vitamin __ (thiamin) include grains, wheat germ pork, and liver
B1
DRI for vitamin __ (thiamin): Males = 1.2 mg Females = 1.1 mg
B1
Vitamin __ (thiamin) deficiencies include beriberi, muscle weakness, foot drop, memory loss, tachycardia, low levels of erythrocyte transketolase, and an increase in plasma pyruvate
B1
Vitamin __ (Riboflavin) is lost in UV light
B2
Vitamin __ (riboflavin) helps to release energy from protein and promotes red blood cell production
B2
Sources of vitamin __ (riboflavin) include liver, kidney, meat, and milk
B2
DRI for vitamin __ (riboflavin): Males = 1.3 mg Females = 1.1 mg
B2
Deficiencies of vitamin __ (riboflavin) include growth failure, cheilosis (cracked lips), angular stomatitis (mouth corner cracks), sore throat, magenta tounge
B2
Vitamin __ (niacin) is the precursor to tryptophan. Essential in all cells for energy production and metabolism
B3
Vitamin __ (niacin) aids in the metabolism of CHO, protein, and fat
B3
Sources of vitamin __ (niacin) include protein, peanuts, ready to eat cereals, chicken, rice, yeast, and milk
B3
DRI for vitamin __ (niacin): Males = 16 mg Females = 14 mg
B3
Deficiencies of vitamin __ (Niacin) include pellagra, dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, beefy bight red tounge, symmetrical pigmented rash in sunlight
B3
Vitamin __ (folate) is a water soluble. para aminobenzoic acid (PABA) is its precursor
B9
Vitamin __ (folate) aids in DNA synthesis, forms RBC in bone marrow, prevents neural tube defects
B9
Source of vitamin __ (folate) include dry cereal, liver, kidney, green leafy vegetables, citrus fruits, lentils and beans
B9
RDI for vitamin __ (folate): 400 micrograms
B9
Deficiencies of vitamin __ (folate) include megaloblastic and macrocytic anemia, diarrhea, fatigue
B9
Vitamin __ (Pyridoxine) is a coenzyme in amino acid metabolism, deamination, and transamination
B6
Source of vitamin __ (Pyridoxine) include meat, wheat, corn, yest, pork, ready to eat cereals
B6
DRI for vitamin __ (Pyridoxine): Males = 1.22 - 1.7 mg Females = 1.3 - 1.5 mg
B6
Deficiencies of vitamin __ (pyridoxine) include seizures, anemia, dermatitis, glossitis, peripheral neruopathy
B6
Vitamin __ (cyanocobalamin) contains cobalt and is bound by intrinsic factor in gastric juices
B12
Vitamin __ (cyanocobalamin) is a coenzyme in protein synthesis and helps to form RBC
B12
Sources of vitamin __ (cyanocobalamin) include liver, meat, milk, kidney, eggs, fish, cheese
B12
DRI for vitamin __ (cyanocobalamin): 2.4 micrograms
B12
Deficiencies of vitamin __ (cyanocobalamin) include macrocytic, megaloblastic anemia, pernicious anemia.
B12
Pernicious anemia usually occurs after removal of the ileum due to a lack of ________ ______, preventing vitamin __ (cyanocobalamin) absorption.
Intrinsic factor, B12
___________ acid is the precursor to coenzyme A. Aids in the synthesis of fatty acids
Pantothenic
Sources of ___________ acid include animal foods, grains, legumes
Pantothenic
DRI for ___________ acid = 5 mg
Pantothenic
Deficiency of ___________ acid is very rare and results in paresthesia in feet
Pantothenic
Vitamin _ (ascorbic acid) is very easily destroyed, has a structure like glucose, is an antioxidant, needs an acidic pH, destroyed by heat, alkaline pH, and oxidation
C
Vitamin _ (ascorbic acid) changes proline into hydroxyproline into collagen which strengthens intercellular substances. Aids in wound healing and iron absorption
C
Vitamin _ (ascorbic acid) is found in citrus fruits, potatoes, papaya, dark green and yellow vegetables
C
DRI for vitamin _ (ascorbic acid) is 70 - 90 mg
C
Deficiencies of vitamin _ (ascorbic acid) include scurvy, poor wound healing, bleeding gums, petechiae
C
Vitamin __ (biotin) is synthesized by intestinal bacteria, inactivated by avidin (protein in raw egg white)
B7
Vitamin __ (biotin) is a coenzyme in fatty acid synthesis, converts pyruvate to oxaloacetate in gluconeogenesis
B7
Vitamin __ (biotin) is found in liver, kidney, egg yolk, and yeast
B7
DRI for Vitamin __ (biotin) is 30 micrograms
B7
Deficiencies for Vitamin __ (biotin) include muscle pan, dermatitis, and glossitis
B7
___ - ________ is found in plants as phytic acid. Related to sugar and contains phosphorus vitamin like factor
Myo - Inositol
___ - ________ (Phytic Acid) binds to calcium, zinc, iron, and helps provide cell membrane structure
Myo - Inositol
___ - ________ (Phytic Acid) is found in the outer husks of cereal grains and leafy green vegetables
Myo - Inositol
_______ is the most abundant mineral in the body. Regulated by the parathyroid hormone. Vitamin D, acid, lactose aid absorption. Calcitonin lowers serum _______ by inhibiting bone resorption.
Calcium
_______ aids in blood clotting, cardiac function, nerve transmission, smooth muscle contractility
Calcium
_______ is found in dairy products, leafy vegetables, and legumes.
Calcium
DRI for _______ is 1000 - 12000 mg
Calcium
Deficiencies of ______ leads to tetany (invoulantary muscle contractions)
Calcium
__________ is the second most abundant mineral. Part of DNA, RNA, and ATP
Phosphorus
__________ helps transpot fat through lymph and blood, bone, teeth
Phosphorus
__________ is found in meat, milk, poultry, eggs, fish, and cheese
Phosphorus
DRI for __________ is 700 mg
Phosphorus
Deficiencies of __________ are very rare
Phosphorus
____ is a trace mineral. Part of hemoglobin. In food: ferric. Absorbable: ferrous. Stored: ferritin.
Iron
The form of iron in food is ______
ferric
The form of iron in food is _______
ferrous
The form of iron in food is ________
ferritin
____ aids in oxygen transport in the blood
Iron
Sources of ____ ____ include animal foods, meat, fish, poultry.
heme iron
Source of non ____ ____ include cereals, vegetables. Non ____ ____ is poorly absorbed, aided by gastric juices and vitamin C. Calcium helps if oxalates are present. Eggs, tea, milk, and cheese do not aid in absorption
heme iron
DRI of ____ = Males 8 mg, females 18 mg
Iron
____ deficiency include pale tounge, fatigue, anemia, spoon shaped nails, pale conjunctivae (mucous membranes lining eyelid)
Iron
_________ is part of chlorophyll, 50% in bone, 50% in cells
Magnesium
_________ aids in protein and fatty acid synthesis, stabilizes the structure of ATP.
Magnesium
_________ is found in most foods, milk, and bread
Magnesium
DRI for _________ : Males = 420 mg Females = 320 mg
Magnesium
_________ deficiency is rare, causes tremors
Magnesium
____ is a trace mineral, excess leads to copper or iron deficiency
Zinc
____ increases taste acuity, enhances insulin action, stabilizes DNA, RNA, cell division
Zinc
____ is found in meat, liver, eggs, fish. Phytates and copper lower ____ absorption
Zinc
DRI for ____: Male 11 mg Female 8 mg
Zinc
Deficiencies for ____ include reduced immune function, alopecia, poor wound healing, and hypogeusia
zinc
______ is a trace mineral, part of thyroxine.
Iodine
Sources of ______ include seafood and iodized salt
Iodine
DRI of ______: 150 micrograms
Iodine
______ deficiency usually materializes as a goiter
Iodine
________ is a trace mineral that fortifies teeth and bones, found in soil and public water.
Fluoride
DRI of ________ : Males = 4 mg Females = 3 mg
Fluoride
Symptom of ________ deficiency are dental carries
Fluoride
______ is a trace mineral attached to protein, ceuloplasmin
copper
______ aids in hemoglobin synthesis and aids in iron absorption
Copper
______ is found in liver kidneys and shellfish
Copper
DRI for ______ is 900 micrograms
copper
______ deficiency is rare, leads to microcytic anemia, neutropenia, wilson’s disease: low serum copper, genetic absence of liver enzyme
copper
________ is a trace mineral that cooperates with vitamin E.
Selenium
_______ is an antioxidant mineral that aids in tissue respiration
Selenium
________ is found in soil, grains, meat, fish, poultry, and dairy
Selenium
DRI for ________ : Male = 55 microgram Female = 45 microgram
Selenium
Deficiency of ________ identifies as myalgia, cardiac, myopathy
Selenium
_________ is a trace mineral that aids in central nervous system function
Manganese
The trace mineral ________ is found in whole grains legumes and nuts
Manganese
DRI for the trace mineral _________ is 1.8 - 2.3 micrograms per day
Manganese
Deficiency of the trace mineral _________ is very unlikely
Manganese
________ is an ultra trace mineral whose absorption is enhanced by vitamin C and niacin
Chromium
The ultra trace mineral ________ aids in insulin action and glucose metabolism
Chromium
Sources of the ultra trace mineral _________ include yeast, oysters, potatoes, and liver
Chromium
DRI for the ultra trace mineral ________ : 25 - 35 micrograms
chromium
Deficiencies of the ultra trace mineral _______ include insulin resistance
chromium
_______ is a mineral that exists with vitamin B12 and is stored in the liver
Cobalt
The mineral ______ aids in the maturation of red blood cells
cobalt
Deficiencies of the mineral ______ are related to B12 deficiency
cobalt
The mineral ______ is part of the amino acids cysteine, cystine, and methionine
sulfur
The mineral ______ is a component of organic molecules
Sulfur
The mineral ______ is found in meat eggs fish and poultry
sulfur
The DRI for the mineral ______ is 425 - 550 mg
sulfur
________ is an essential nutrient that is a component of lecithin and helps transport lipids as acetyl_______
choline
The essential nutrient _______ is found in the fat in eggs milk, liver, and soybeans
choline
Water is _____________ (ICW) within cells
intracellular
Plasma, lymph, interstitial or intercellular fluid are all ____________ (ECW)
extracellular
_____ serves as the medium for cell metabolism
water
__________ water loss is water lost through the skin and through breathing. This is about 0.8 - 1.2 liters per day
insensible
_____ _____ fluid includes both extracellular and extravascular fluid
Third Space
____________ dissociate into ions in water
electrolytes
cations are __________ charged and ______ are negatively charged
cations, anions
___ = (mg / atomic weight) x # of valence electrons
mEq
The ___________ electrolytes include Na+, Ca++, Cl-, and HCO3- (bicarbonate)
extracellular
Sodium chloride is __% sodium
40
One teaspoon of salt has _ grams of NaCl, and therefore ___ grams of sodium
6, 2.4
Sodium is absorbed by the hormone ___________ and retained by steroids
aldosterone
Normal saline is ___% (NaCl) 154 mEq Na and 154 mEg Cl per liter
0.9
The _____________ electrolytes are K+, Mg++, P
intracellular
Sources of the intracellular electrolyte _________ include meat, fuits, vegetables, (banana, orange, tomato, potato, cantaloupe).
Potassium
Poor sources of the intracellular electrolyte _________ include apple, cranberry, blueberry, carrot, and corn
Potassium
The hormone ___________ increases the excretion of the intracellular electrolyte _________.
aldosterone, potassium
_____________ is causes by excessive stores of the intracellular electrolyte _________ and causes cardiac irregularities
Hyperkalemia, potassium
Normal range for ______ cations: 136 - 145 mEq/L
sodium
Normal range for ______ cations: 3.5 - 5 mEq/L
Potassium
Normal range for ______ cations: 4.5 - 5.5 mEq/L (9 - 11 mg/dL)
Calcium
Normal range for ______ cations: 1.5 - 2.5 mEq/L (1.8 - 3 mg/dL)
Magnesium
Normal range for ______ anions: 96 - 106 mEq/L
Chloride
Normal range for ______ anions: 3 - 4.5 mg/dL
Phosphorus
_____ specific gravity = 1.002 - 1.025 (formula uses weight and volume)
Urine
_______ is the movement of fluid from a less to a more concentrated side of a membrane
osmosis
_________ is the movement of particles from a more to less concentrated side
diffusion
________ effect on fluid balance is that it exerts colloidal osmotic pressure
Protein’s
The protein _______ exerts pressure on blood vessel walls that keep water within. When _______ levels drop, the pressure drops, causing fluid to leak out
Albumin, albumin
When _______ levels are low, water moves from the extracellular (plasma) space of cells to the interstitial space( between and around cells).
Albumin
Low serum _______ leads to edema and ascities
protein
________ is extreme, generalized edema and widespread swelling of skin due to effusion of fluid into extracellular space. It is associated with heart, liver, renal failure, and extreme protein and calorie malnutrition.
Anasarca
___________ is caused by decreased water intake, excessive water output, and heavy solute load
dehydration
Signs of ___________ include nausea, dizziness, sunken eyes, fever hyperventilation, excessive sweating, concentrated urine, dry inelastic skin, increase in solutes (BUN) tachycardia, headache, fatigue, decreased appetite, and rapid weight loss
dehydration
Serum ______ is the BEST assessment parameter for fluid status.
sodium
Hypernatremia is associated with ____ hydration, hyponatremia is associated with ____ hydration
dehydration, over hydration
____ - ____ balance is the regulation of hydrogen concentration
acid - base
____ releases hydrogen ions, _____ release take up hydrogen ions
acid, base
A ______ is a mixture of acid and base components to protect against a strong acid or strong base
buffer
The _____ buffer if the body is carbonic acid (H2CO3) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
major
_____ control supply of carbonic acid (carbon dioxide, water)
Lungs
The amount of _______ acid in the body is altered by the rate and depth of breathing
carbonic
____ventilation promotes the retention of carbonic acid, _____ventilation promotes the loss of acid
hypo, hyper
_______ control the amount of base in the body
Kidneys
_______ regulate hydrogen ion secretion and bicarbonate reabsorption
Kidneys
If kidneys retain __________, the level of base in the body increases
bicarbonate
If kidneys excrete excess ___________ the level of base in the body decreases
bicarbonate
A change in one side of the body’s major ______ brings about a compensatory change in the other side to maintain a pH balance close to ___
buffer, 7.4
respiratory ________ is the retention of carbon dioxide by the lungs (decreased ventilation). To compensate the kidneys increase absorption of base
acidosis
Respiratory _________ is the loss of carbonic acid (increased ventillation). To compenste the kidneys excrete additional base
alkalosis
In metabolic ________ the kidneys either produce or retain too much hydrogen leading to an increase in production of carbonic acid; or the kidneys may excrete too much base. To compensate, respiration increases to remoce carbon dioxide and to decrease carbonic acid
acidosis
In metabolic _________ hydrogen is lost due to a loss of acid; or an increased retention of base. To compensate, ventilation decreases to retain carbon dioxide to make carbonic acid
alkalosis
In __________ acidosis H2CO3 increases. It is caused by CO2 retention, hypoventilation, and emphysema. The compensetory response is for the kidneys to increase absorption of bicarbonate
Respiratory
In ___________ alkalosis H2CO3 decreases. This is caused by a loss of CO2 and H2O, hyperventilation, anxiety, and severe exercise. The compensatory response is for the kidneys to excrete bicarbonate.
respiratory
In _________ acidosis HCO3 decreases and H+ increased. This occurs when the kidneys excrete excess base; uremia, diarrhea, increased hydrogen production or retention by the kidneys, uncontrolled diabetes, starvation, high fat or low CHO diet. The compensatory response is for respiration to increase and to expel CO2 to decrease carbonic acid (hyperventilation.
metabolic
In _________ alkalosis HCO3 increases and H+ decreases. This is caused by an abnormal retention of base, increased ingestion of alkali, diuretics, vomiting, loss of acid, loss of chloride. The compensatory response is for respiration to decrease, retain carbon dioxide, increase carbonic acid, and hypoventilation.
metabolic
The first step in evaluating a patient’s acid base balance is to: Check the patient’s __. Is it moving towards ________ or _________?
pH, acidosis, alkalosis
The second step in evaluating a patient’s acid base balance is to: Look for the cause of acidosis or alkalosis, is it _________ or _________?
Respiratory, metabolic
To determine if ________ or _______ is ___________, check pCO2, this is regulated by the lungs. This will tell you if the lungs are working normally.
acidosis, alkalosis, respiratory
To determine if ________ or _______ is ___________, check HCO3, this is regulated by the kidneys. This will tell you if the kidneys are working normally.
acidosis, alkalosis, metabolic
Normal weight women should gain __ - __ lbs during pregnancy
25 - 35
Underweight women should gain __ - __ lbs during pregnancy
28 - 40
Overweight women should gain __ - __ lbs during pregnancy
15 - 25
Obese women should gain __ - __ lbs during pregnancy
11 -20
_____ and very _____ women should try to attain the higher limit of their pregnancy weight gain recommendations to reduce risk
Black, young
During the first trimester of pregnancy (0 - 12 weeks) a woman should add ___ calories to her needs per day
0
During the second trimester of pregnancy (13 - 26 weeks) a woman should add ___ calories to her needs per day
340
During the third trimester of pregnancy (27 - last week) a woman should add ___ calories to her needs per day
452
During the first 6 months of lactation a woman should add ___ calories to her needs per day
330
During the first 6 - 12 months of lactation a woman should add ___ calories to her needs per day
400
During the second half of pregnancy (after 20 weeks) and during lactation women should consume an additional __ grams of protein
71
Minimum hemoglobin during pregnancy = __ g/dL
11
Minimum hematocrit during pregnancy = __ %
33
Weight gain in pregnancy = __ lb / month for first 3 months; __ lb per week thereafter
1,1
Pregnancy at risk with failure to gain __ lbs / month in last half of pregnancy
4
Pregnancy at risk with mother less than __ yrs or greater than or equal to __ years
16, 35
Pregnancy at risk when less than __ months between pregnancies
12
Pregnant __________ are at high risk, needs extra iron, calcium and zinc
adolescents
__ mg of ferrous sulfate should be taken during the 2nd and 3rd trimesters of pregnancy (taken between meals, not with milk, tea, or coffee)
30
___ micrograms of folic acid should taken during pregnancy (added to 200 from foods for a total of ___)
400, 600
AI of calcium for pregnancy and lactation: less than 18 yrs ____ mg, greater than 18 years ____ mg
1300, 1000
____________ is a hormone that develops placenta after implantation
progesterone
Recommend ___ g/ day of linoleic acid, ___ g / day with lactation. Needed for development of the fetal nervous system
1.4, 1.3
Avoid excess intake of preformed vitamin _ during pregnancy
A
Avoid shark, swordfish, king mackerel, limit albacore, raw fish during _________
pregnancy
Normal birth weight ____ - ____ g
2500 - 4000
Low birth weight less than ____ g
2500
Very low birth weight less than ____ g
1500
Extremely low birth weight less than ____ g
1000
____ for ___________ ___ (SGA) = less than 10th percentile birth weight for gestational age
Small for gestation age
___________ for ___________ ___ (AGA) = birth weight between 10 and 90th percentile
Appropriate for gestational age
_____ for ___________ ___ (LGA) = birth weight above 90th percentile
Large for gestational age
Calorie needs from 0 - 6 months : Males = ___ Females = ___
570, 520
Protein needs from 0 - 6 months : ___ g
9.1
Water needs 0 - 6 months : ___ - ___ mL/Kg
125 - 155
Fat needs 0 - 6 months: minimum of __ grams per day
30
Calorie needs 7 - 12 months = Males = ___ Females = ___
676, 743
Protein needs 7 - 12 months = __ g
11
Water needs 7 - 12 months = __ mL / kcal
1.5
A neonate is from birth to __ month(s)
1
Neonates can absorb whole intact _______
protein
Weight at 0 - 6 months _ kg (__ lbs)
6, 13
Weight at 7 - 12 months _ kg (__ lbs)
9, 20
Length at 0 - 6 months __” (__cm)
24, 60
Length at 7 - 12 months __” __cm
28, 71
Hemoglobin for newborns = ____ - ____
16.5 - 19.5
Hemoglobin for 6 - 23 months = ____
10.0+
Hematocrit for newbon = __ - __
49 - 54
Human milk is __ calories per ounce
20
Maternal hormones come from the _________ gland
pituitary
The hormone _________ stimulates milk production
prolactin
________ moves milk through milk ducts
Oxytocin
_________ is the yellowish transparent fluid secreted from the breast during the first few days
Colostrum
_________ meets infants needs during the first week; has more protein, less fat and carbohydrate than mature milk; has antibodies
Colostrum
Exclusive breastfeeding is recommended for the first _ - _ months, then weaning foods for at least up to 12 month
4 - 6
Human milk is _% protein, __% carbohydrate, __% fat, and has more lactalbumin than cows milk
7, 38, 55
Cows milk is __% protein, __% carbohydrate, __% fat
20, 30, 50
Breast fed infants need: ___ IU vitamin D from birth and ____ mg fluoride / day after _ months of age if water contains inadequate fluoride
400, 0.25, 6
Milk supply is adequate if infant gains ______ and ______, has frequent stools and _ - _ wet diapers per day
weight, length, 6 - 8
The Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative is a global effort to increase the incidence and duration of ______ - _______. To be compliant the hospital must show it implements ten steps to be successful. Requires a multidisciplinary team.
Breast Feeding
Infant formula has __ calories / ounce; need ____ oz/lb/day
20, 2 1/2
Formula has more _______ and ____ than human milk but lacks __________
protein, iron, antibodies
Vitamin _ requirement is met with formula feeding if infant receives at least one quart of standard infant formula daily
D
Formula fed infants only need ________ (0.25 mg / day) as a supplement, after 6 months of age, if water supply is inadequate (less than 0.3 ppm)
fluoride
Unmodified ____ ____ in formula is inappropriate; tough hard curd; hard to digest; less EFA; increased renal solute load
cows milk
Dried whey has __% lactose. Casein hydrolysate does not have lactose
73
____ fortified formula is recommended for all infants on formula
Iron
__________________ unconjugated _________ levels are elevated within first week of life as a result of increased breakdown of red blood cells, or decreased intestinal mobility. Encourage 9 - 12 feedings per day of human milk or formula to promote hydration and intestinal motility
Hyperbilirubinemia, bilirubin
Fetal ____ stores decrease at 3 - 4 months, need additional ____ preferably from formula or supplemental foods (cereal starting at 4 - 6 months)
iron, iron
______ can be added to diet at 4 - 6 months of life, when sitting posture can be sustained and extrusion reflex diminishes; begin with iron fortified cereal, then strained vegetables or fruit
Solids
Large finger foods such as teething biscuit can be added at _ - _ months of age. (Foods that can be secured with a palmar grasp)
6 - 8
Small finger foods can be added at _ - __ months of age (dry cereals) pincer grasp (thumb and forefinger develops)
9 - 12
No _____ ____ milk during first year of life
whole cow’s
___ ___ and ___ - ___ milk are inappropriate during the first two years of life
low fat, non fat
For those who cannot tolerate ___ milk or ___ products, use formulas made from a ______ ___________ (Pregestimil)
cow’s, soy, casein hydrolysate
One serving of vitamin _ rich foods by around _ months to enhance iron absorption from non heme sources
C, 6
Growth rate slows from age - (food serving sizes 2 - 4 ounces); from age - growth in spurts; from age - growth slows
1-3, 4-6, 7-10
Protein needs age 1-3 __g, age 4-8 __g, from age 9-13 __g
13, 19, 34
____ needs are the same for boys and girls up through age 10
Iron
Limit fruit juice to _ ounces each day up to age 6
4
Children should undergo __ minutes of physical activity per day
60
Final growth spurt is in __________; most dietary deficiencies
adolescence
Protein requirements age 14 - 18: Males = __ g Females = __ g
52, 46
Calcium for males and females ages 9 - 13: ____ mg (adequate intake)
1300
___ growth charts used from birth to 2 years of age; ___ growth charts from 2 to 20 years of age
WHO, CDC
______ for ______ / stature (birth - 24 months, young children 2 - 5) identifies under/over nutrition, or within normal limits; detects short term changes in nutritional status; used to distinguish between stunting and wasting
Weight for length
Less than __th percentile on the WHO and CDC growth charts reflects acute illness or wasting; greater than __th percentile reflects overnutrition
5, 95
_______ / length for age (0 - 24 month recumbent length, 2 - 20 years height) defines shortness/tallness, reflects long term nutritional stress or chronic illness, less than 5th percentile is short _______
Stature, stature
______ for ___ (birth - 24 month and 2 - 20 years); not used to classify under/overweight; short term marker of growth; affected by acute nutritional stress or illness; cannot distinguish between stunting and wasting because it does not include height; further evaluation needed if below 5th or above 95th percentile
weight for age
___ for age percentiles starting at age 2 years: Underweight less than 5th percentile; healthy weight 5th to 84th; overweight 85th to 94th; obese greater than or equal to 95th percentile or ___ greater than or equal to 30
BMI, BMI
____ _____________ measured until 3 years of age
Head circumference
______ length is measured until age two
supine
______ usually does not deviate by more than 25 percentile points from he established growth pattern
Growth
One of the major reasons for large discrepancies in ______ patterns is human error in measurement
growth
Newborn initial __% loss of birth weight should be regained by 10 - 14 days
6
By month __ or __ birth weight should be doubled; by year __ birth weight should triple and length should increase 50%
4, 5, 1
By __ years birth weight should be quadrupled and length should be 75% greater
2
Normal gestation period is approximately __ weeks
40
An infant born at __ weeks is __ weeks premature
28, 12
__ months chronologic age - __ months correction factor = __ month adjusted age
4, 3, 1
Growth charts from the American Academy of Pediatrics to assess children with ____ ________ should no longer be used.
Down Syndrome
_____ charts for other special needs children are based on relatively _____ populations, and should be used in conjunction with CDC or WHO charts.
Growth, small
_______ to ______ (FTT) may result from acute r chronic illness, restricted diet, poor appetite, lack of fiber leading to chronic constipation, diminished intake.
Failure to Thrive
____ poisoning symptoms: irritability, lethargy, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, anemia
Lead
________ activity determines needs in adulthood
Physical
Adult RDA for protein (greater than 19 years of age): __ g for males and __g for females
56, 46
Macronutrient recommendations for adults: __ - __% CHO, __ - __% fat, __ - __% protein
45 - 65, 20 - 35, 10 - 35
AI for total fiber for adults under 50: men = __ women = __
38, 25
Adult recommended fluid intake: __ mL / kg or _ mL / calorie ingested
35, 1
Adult AI fluid intake: Men = ___ L / day Female = ___ L / day
3.7, 2.7
Sodium AI for adult (19-50): ___ g / day (3.8 g NaCl)
1.5
AI alpha linoleic acid: Male = ___ g Female = ___ g
1.6, 1.1
AI linoleic acid: Male = __ g Female = __ g
17, 12
Young old population = __ - __
65 - 74
Aged population = __ - __
75 - 84
Oldest and up population = __ and up
85
______ needs decrease after age 65, _______ needs remain the same
Calorie, Protein
_______ and ____ needs increase after 65 due to decreased absorption due to decreased HCL
Calcium, Iron
____________ among the elderly due to lowered gastric motility and lower HCL secretion in stomach
Constipation
Fluid needs over 65: __ - __ mL/kg
25 - 30
Supplement ______ rich foods among the elderly, supplements of B6 and B12 may be needed
Folate
Athletes need water during physical activity: __ oz. for every _ lb of body weight lost
16, 1
Before intense physical activity, limited research suggests __ mL / kg of a high sodium containing beverage (around 164 mEqNa / L) priot to activity that is _ - _ hours long, may enhance maintenance of body core temperature in moderate to highly trained males 23 - 46
10, 1 - 4
During continuous endurance physical activity of _ - _ hours in adults: To maintain hydration, beverages provided in a volume that equals ___% fluid lost during moderate - vigorous activity, pluss ___ - __% CHO and __ - ___ mEq Na.
1 - 4, 100, 5.5 - 15, 55 - 164
To restore hydration in adults 19 years and older after continuous endurance physical activity _ - _ hours in duration: Rehydration beverages provided in a volume that equals ___ - ___% of fluid lost during exercise and contain _ - ___% CHO and ____ - ____ mg / dL sodium are more effective in improving hydration and endurance capacity than non CHO electrolyte solution
1 - 2, 100 - 150%, 6 - 7.6%, 57.5 - 1150
Carbohydrate loading: Stores _ - _ times normal amount of muscle glycogen. Adverse effect include weakness, bloating, dizziness, soreness
2 - 3
At rest and during normal activities fats are the primary energy source __ - __%; CHO _-__%; Protein -%
80 - 90, 5 - 18, 2 - 5
During low to moderate intensity aerobic activity (long duration, steady pace, endurance training), ___ is a significant energy source
Fat
When exercise goes above __ - __ of maximal oxygen uptake, CHO is needed as fuel source
60 - 65
During prolonged exercise reliance on CHO to provide ________ for continued lipid oxidation
Pyruvate
Muscle glycogen is depleted in _ - _ hour of continuous exercise at __ - __%
2 - 3, 60 - 80
_______ supplements do not enhance endurance (not helpful for marathon runner, soccer player)
Creatine
Herbals, botanicals, and supplements are regulated by the _______ __________ ______ and _________ Act (DSHEA) of 1994
Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act
The _ _ _ _ _ clarifies marketing regulations for botanicals and reclassifies them as dietary supplements; plant extracts, enzymes, vitamins, minerals, hormonal products available without prescriptions, may carry ‘structure function’ claims; the physiological effect can be noted, but no claims about prevention or cure of specific conditions can be made
DSHEA
_____ ______ supplement eases menopause symptoms; may cause clotting
Black Cohosh
_________ supplement
prevent and moderate cold symptoms; avoid taking for more than 2 months
Echinacea
_______ supplement
promotes weight loss; rapid heart rate, headaches, very likely hazardous
Ephedra
______ supplement may lower cholesterol and blood pressure; reduces clotting time, avoid use with warfarin
Garlic
______ supplement treats antiemetic; avoid use with drugs that effect bleeding
Ginger
______ ______ supplement treats vasodilation; avoid use with warfarin
Ginkgo Biloba
_______ supplement treats immunity, endurance; high blood pressure, avoid with warfarin
Ginseng
____ supplement relieve anxiety; liver failure, very likely hazardous
Kava
____ _______ supplement may help protect liver
Milk Thistle
__ _____ ____ supplement treats anti depressive, serotonin - enhancing; reduces effect of warfarin, avoid with antihypertensives, oral contraceptives, some statins
St. John’s Wort
_______ ____ supplement treats ulcers; avoid combinations with spironolactone, thiazide and loop diuretics, hypertensives
Licorice Root
___ _______ supplement relieve symptoms of enlarged prostate; diuretic
Saw Palmetto
________ ____ supplement calms nerves; avoid with liver disease
Valerian Root
_______ supplement treats erectile dysfunction; elevates blood pressure
Yohimbe
Food in oral cavity is chewed and mixed with saliva secreted by glands in the mouth (_______, ____________, __________)
Parotid, submaxillary, sublingual
Food passes into the stomach via the esophagus through the _______ valve into the ______, the upper portion of the stomach that holds the bulk of the food to be digested. Most digestion in the stomach occurs in the pyloric (lower) region
cardiac, fundus
Food is forced into the small intestine through the _______ valve of the stomach. Complete digestion and absorption of food takes place in the small intestine (________, _______, _____)
pyloric, duodenum, jejunum, ileum
The _______ duct from the liver joins with the _____ duct from the gall bladder
hepatic, cystic
____, produced in the liver is stored in the ___________. The liver stores ________ and synthesizes _______
Bile, gallbladder, glycogen, glucose
The ________ lies between the duodenum and the stomach
pancreas
Undigested food and water pass through the _________ valve into the large intestine or colon
ileocecal
Chemical or enzymatic activity mainly occur in the _____ intestine.
small
___________ starts in the stomach with protease pepsin and HCL; limited continuation of ______ hydrolysis by salivary amylase
Proteolysis, starch
The hormone _______ stimulates gastric secretions and motility
gastrin
The hormone _______________ (CCK) released from the duodenum when fat enters contracts the gallbladder releasing bile and stimulating the pancreas
cholecystokinin
The hormone _________ (duodenum) stimulates flow of pancreatic juice (bicarbonate) and water into the duodenum, inhibits gastric acid secretion
secretin
The hormone ________ - ____ _______ _ (GLP - 1) and the hormone _______ - _________ ______________ ___________ (GIP) are released from the intestines in the presence of glucose and fat, stimulates insulin synthesis and release
Glucagon - like Peptide 1, Glucose - Dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide
___________ produces a bolus (mass of food)
Mastication
Rhythmic contractions of the esophagus force food into the ______ where it is mixed with gastric juice and reduced to _____ (acid)
stomach, chyme
_______ emptying of a meal usually takes between two and six hours
Gastric
CHO rich and protein rich foods empty at about the same rate from the stomach. High ___ foods and _______ CHO, especially _______ fibers slow gastric emptying
fat, complex, complex
Acidic _____ enters the duodenum and mixes with fluids and bicarbonate ions from the pancreas which neutralize the acid
chyme
Most digestion is completed by the ______ of the jejunum; nutrients absorbed include amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, simple sugars, minerals, and vitamins
middle
___________ is the rhythmic movements of the small intestine
Peristalsis
Bacterial digestion occurs in the _____
colon
The ____ intestine absorbs water, salts, and the vitamins synthesized by bacteria (vitamin K, B12, thiamin, riboflavin) which are used by GI mucosal cells
large
_______ _______ is the anaerobic fermentation and absorption of end products of CHO, fiber, and amino acid breakdown
Colonic salvage
Bacterial digestion also converts malabsorbed CHO and fiber into _____ ______ ____ _____ and_______ gas.
Short chain fatty acids, methane
The mouth begins the ________ digestion of CHO and the __________ digestion of fat and protein
chemical, mechanical
The stomach continues ________ digestion of CHO started in the mouth, __________ digests fat, and __________ digests fat through proteolysis using pepsin
chemical, mechanical, chemical
The small intestine continues ________ digestion of CHO through pancreatic amylase, intestinal sucrase, maltase, and lactase
chemical
____ _____ from the gallbladder emulsify fat
Bile salts
______ from the pancreas converts triglycerides to FFA and glycerol
lipase
__________ _______ from the pancreas converts cholesterol to cholesterol esters
Cholesterol esterase
___________ from the pancreas converts phospholipids to lysolechithin and FFA
Phospohlipase
_______ from the pancreas converts protein, proteose, and peptone to polypeptides
trypsin
____________ from the pancreas converts proteose and peptone to poly and di peptides
chymotrypsin
________________ from the pancreas converts polypeptides to dipeptides and amino acids
carboxypeptidase
______________ from the intestines converts polypeptides to peptides and amino acids
aminopeptidase
__________ from the intestines converts dipeptides to amino acids
dipeptidase
______ sugars are absorbed in the small intestine, go to the liver, and are then converted to glucose or glycogen
simple
______ is a product of intermediate metabolism resulting from the reconversion of lactic acid and pyruvic acid
glucose
__% of protein can be converted to glucose; glucogenic amino acids (yield glucose following deamination)
58
_______ is the most glucogenic amino acid and is catabolized to pyruvate or to Kreb’s Cycle intermediates
Alanine
__% of fat can be converted into glucose
10
Fatty acids and muscle glycogen do not contribute to the body’s supply of _______
glucose
_______ is used by the body for energy
glucose
_____________ is the process where glucose is stored as glycogen in the muscle and liver
Glycogenesis
__________ is the process by which glycogen is converted into adipose tissue
lipogenesis
A small amount of glucose is converted into other CHO compounds such as ______, which is needed to form RNA and DNA
ribose
_______ is produced by the beta cells of the pancreas and increased cell permeability to glucose; fosters glycogenesis, and lipogenesis
Insulin
________ is a hormone produced by the alpha cells of the pancreas and induces glycogenolysis (converts glycogen back to glucose
glucagon
_______________ are hormones that convert protein to glucose
Glucocorticoids
____________ is a hormone produced by the adrenal medulla that stimulates the sympathetic nervous system, stimulates liver and muscle glycogenolysis (glycogen into glucose) decreases the release of insulin from the pancreas (during catabolic stress; blood glucose rises)
Epinephrine
_____ hormone and ____ (adrenocorticotropic) are insulin antagonists
Growth, ACTH
__________ occurs in the cytoplasm. Its purpose is to produce pyruvate for the Kreb’s cycle by breaking down glucose, with or without oxygen, into pyruvate later
glycoysis
In _______ glycolysis, the end product is pyruvate
aerobic
In _________ glycolysis the end product is lactate
anaerobic
_______ enters the cell aided by insulin; combines with __________ in the presence of magnesium to form glucose 6 phosphate; proceeds to pyruvic acid
glucose, phosphorus
_______ - _ - _________ may lead to the synthesis of glucogen
Glucose 6 Phosphate
Liver ________ releases glucose to the blood to maintain normal blood glucose levels; process requires _______ - _ - ___________. Muscles do NOT have this enzyme (muscle glycogen is only used by that muscle)
glycogen, glucose 6 phosphate,
_______ - _ - _________ also proceeds through the pentose shunt (side channeling of glucose); does not require ATP; ribose (part of RNA) is produced; NADPH is also produced which is essential for the synthesis of fatty acids (NADPH has niacin)
Glucose 6 phosphate
_______ acid can form ______ acid used for muscle contraction when energy needs exceed supply of oxygen (oxygen debt)
Pyruvic, lactic
In the ____ cycle lactate is released from tissue, transported to the liver, and converted back to pyruvate
Cori
Most of _______ acid is converted to form acetyl CoA (active acetate)
pyruvic
________ is the main substrate for energy production in the Kreb’s Cycle
Pyruvate
______ ___ comes from pyruvic acid CHO, oxidation of fatty acids, and degradation of carbon skeleton of certain amino acids.
Acetyl CoA
______ ___ is the intermediate breakdown product of CHO, protein, and fat
Acetyl CoA
The _____ _____ produces 90% of the body’s energy as ATP.
Kreb’s Cycle
CHO is the fuel source needed to keep the _____ cycle going
Krebs
Oxaloacetic acid is the main ___ fuel in the Kreb’s cycle and is used to form pyruvic acid and some amino acids
CHO
If there is not enough ___________ acid to fuel the Kreb’s cycle, acetyl CoA coming in from fat cannot be handled properly and is diverted to form ketone bodies
oxaloacetic
_____ ____________ acid needs thiamin for decarboxylation
Alpha ketoglutaric
Full oxidation of 1 molecule of glucose yields __ ATP
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